General Studies Paper 3

CONTEXT

• Tropical areas lost 4.1 million hectares of forest cover – equivalent to losing an area of 11 football fields per minute – in 2022, new research quoted by the World Resources Institute’s (WRI) Global Forest Watch has said.

THE PRIMARY FORESTS

• Primary forests are mature, natural forests that have remained undisturbed in recent history.
• They often store more carbon than other forests and are rich sources of biodiversity.
• Primary forest loss is almost irreversible in nature: even if the green cover regrows, a secondary forest is unlikely to match the extent of biodiversity and carbon sequestering capabilities of a primary forest.
• Rainforests are also called “Primary Forests” thanks to their pristine untouched vegetation because unaffected by any human activity.
• As the population of the country grows, there is more demand for food, which in turn is leading to an expansion of area under agriculture and encroachment of land hosting primary forests.
• Primary forests are burned for short-term cultivation and then left fallow for regeneration of soil nutrients.

DISTRIBUTION

• Tropical rain forests can be found in Asia, Australia, Africa, South America, Central America, Mexico, and several Pacific Islands, all of which are around 28 degrees north or south of the equator.
• They cover about 6-7 percent of the earth’s surface and are home to half of the planet’s biodiversity.
• Brazil (South America), the Democratic Republic of Congo (Africa), and Indonesia are home to the world’s largest rainforests.
• South America’s Amazon rainforest is the world’s largest, occupying an area almost two-thirds the size of the continental United States.

GLOBAL FOREST WATCH FINDINGS

• According to Global Forest Watch, India lost 43.9 thousand hectares of humid primary forest between 2021 and 2022, which accounts for 17% of the country’s total tree cover loss in the period.
• The total global tree cover loss in 2022 declined by 10%. This includes primary, secondary, and planted forests.
• This decrease, according to Global Forest Watch, is a direct result of a decrease in fire-related forest losses which decreased 28% from 2021. Non-fire losses in 2022 increased by slightly less than 1%.
• Brazil and the Democratic Republic of Congo are the two countries with the most tropical forest cover, and both registered losses of this resource in 2022.

SUGGESTIONS

• We need to reduce global deforestation by at least 10% every year to meet the 2030 target. In 2022, although the global deforestation rate was 3.1% lower than the baseline from 2018-2020. This puts the world off track to meet the 2030 goal.
• To meet the target of restoring 350 mha of forests globally by 2030, the world needs to increase tree cover by 22 mha per year, between 2021 and 2030.
• Reducing deforestation will strengthen the resilience of the Amazon rainforest and safeguard its threatened areas.
• The Brazilian government’s current administration is in the spotlight, and it is being urged to implement a zero-deforestation policy to change the situation.
• Constructing knowledge about the role of trees in the Amazon ecosystem and creating awareness among students and youths of the importance of trees to the Amazon ecosystem.
• To protect them, it is also necessary to limit global greenhouse gas emissions.
• Corporates are required to follow corporate responsibility guidelines which bans them from taking part in endeavours that harm Amazon.

CONCLUSION

• The solution of saving Tropical forests must be based on what is feasible, not overly idealistic, and depends on developing a conservation approach built on the principle of sustainable use and development of rainforests.

General Studies Paper 3

CONTEXT

• Recently, India is aiming to make the rupee a global currency.
• In order to internationalisation of the rupee, the Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) inter-departmental group (IDG) said that India remaining one of the fastest-growing countries and showing remarkable resilience in the face of major headwinds and the rupee has the potential to become an internationalised currency.
• And These recommendations are significant, in light of the economic sanctions imposed by the US on Russia for invading Ukraine and the growing clamour for finding an alternative to the US dollar for international transactions.

WHAT DOES INTERNATIONALISATION OF THE RUPEE MEAN?

• Internationalisation is a process that involves increasing the use of the rupee in cross-border transactions.
• It involves promoting the rupee for import and export trade and then other current account transactions, followed by its use in capital account transactions. These are transactions between residents in India and non-residents.
• The internationalisation of the currency, which is closely interlinked with the nation’s economic progress, requires further opening up of the currency settlement and a strong swap and forex market.
• More importantly, it will require full convertibility of the currency on the capital account and cross-border transfer of funds without any restrictions. But currently. India has allowed only full convertibility on the current account as of now.
• Currently, the US dollar, the Euro, the Japanese yen and the pound sterling are the leading reserve currencies in the world. China’s efforts to make its currency renminbi has met with only limited success so far.

THE RELEVANCE OF INTERNALISATION OF RUPEE

• Currently, the US dollar is said to enjoy an ‘Exorbitant Privilege’, which refers to the innumerable benefits that accrue to the US on account of all other countries of the world are using US dollar as their currency in most of their international transactions, among global currencies.
• The dollar’s position is supported by a range of factors, including the size of the US economy, the reach of its trade and financial networks, the depth and liquidity of US financial markets, and a history of macroeconomic stability and currency convertibility.
• Dollar dominance has also benefited from the lack of viable alternatives.
• According to the RBI’s working group, the obvious challenger to the US dollar dominance is the Chinese Renminbi.
• However, its ability to rival the US dollar will depend on future policies in both the US and China and the ability of the Chinese economy and its financial system to demonstrate the same long-term resilience, integrity, transparency, openness and stability, which are characteristics of the US economy.
• In the wake of the sanctions imposed on the Russian government, its public sector and even individuals linked to the government, many countries have become cautious of the price they may have to pay if they are subjected to similar sanctions by the Western government
• They are making effort to reduce their reliance on the US dollar and its financial markets as well as their dependence on dominant international payment mechanisms based on the Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunications (SWIFT) messaging system.
• Even the Asian crisis of 1997-1998 underscored the necessity of emerging market economies having strong foreign exchange reserves to manage external shocks, in an increasingly polarised world, it no longer seems a sufficient defence against the threat of economic sanctions.

ADVANTAGES OF INTERNATIONALISATION OF THE RUPEE

• The RBI-appointed group feels that it is imperative for India to continue exploring alternatives to both the USD and the Euro.
• The use of the rupee in cross-border transactions mitigates currency risk for Indian businesses.
• Therefore, Protection from currency volatility not only reduces the cost of doing business but also enables better growth of business, improving the chances for Indian businesses to grow globally.
• While reserves help manage exchange rate volatility and project external stability, they impose a cost on the economy.
• Internationalisation of the rupee reduces the need for holding foreign exchange reserves. Reducing dependence on foreign currency will make India less vulnerable to external shocks.
• As the use of the rupee becomes significant, the bargaining power of Indian businesses would improve, adding weight to the Indian economy and enhancing India’s global stature and respect.

The major recommendation made by the working group for internalisation of rupee: (Way forward)

• The working group, headed by RBI Executive Director Radha Shyam Ratho, has recommended a slew of short to long term measures to accelerate the pace of internationalisation of the rupee.
• For the short term, the group has suggested adoption of a standardised approach for examining the proposals on bilateral and multilateral trade arrangements for invoicing, settlement and payment in the rupee and local currencies, encouraging the opening of the rupee accounts for non-residents both in India and outside India and integrating Indian payment systems with other countries for cross-border transactions.
• Strengthening the financial market by fostering a global 24×5 rupee market and recalibration of the FPI (foreign portfolio investor) regime.
• Over the next two to five years, the group has recommended a review of taxes on masala (rupee-denominated bonds issued outside India by Indian entities) bonds, international use of Real Time Gross Settlement (RTGS) for cross-border trade transactions and inclusion of Indian Government Bonds in global bond indices.
• For the long term, the group has recommended that efforts should be made for the inclusion of the rupee in IMF’s (International Monetary Fund) SDR (special drawing rights).
• The SDR is an international reserve asset created by the IMF to supplement the official reserves of its member countries. The value of the SDR is based on a basket of five currencies ; the U.S. dollar, the euro, the Chinese renminbi, the Japanese yen, and the British pound sterling.

CONCLUSION

• Therefore, Internationalisation of Indian rupee will help in mitigates currency risk for Indian businessmen and will also provide protection from currency volatility which will not only reduces the cost of doing business but also enables better growth of business, improving the chances for Indian businesses to grow globally.
• However, there is need for delicate balance to trade off rupee convertibility for exchange rate stability.

General Studies Paper 2

CONTEXT

• The euphoria stemming from Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s state visit to the United States in June is yet to subside. Those with long memories of U.S.-India relations in the past are, hence, left to wonder whether this is the same U.S. that had let India down in the past at crucial moments.

BACKGROUND

• Two U.S. Presidents in particular, Lyndon B. Johnson in 1963 and Richard Nixon in 1971, are still remembered for their infamous roles in this respect.
• Johnson for denying aid to India in the wake of China’s perfidious attack on India in 1962, and Nixon during the India-Pakistan conflict in 1971 for sending the U.S. Seventh Fleet steaming up the Bay of Bengal in a show of force intended to deter India from supporting the ‘liberation struggle’ in East Bengal, which ultimately led to the birth of a new nation, Bangladesh.
• This time, there was no room, whatsoever, to doubt in which corner the U.S. stands in relation to India.
• The promise of the transfer of technology in several areas, most conspicuously in terms of producing fighter jet engines for the Indian Air Force, and holding out the promise of the initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET) marks a remarkable turn in the American attitude.
• All this, and with the many more agreements on critical technologies on the anvil, could lead to a quantum jump in India’s military and aerospace capabilities.

INDIAN VISITS THEN AND NOW

• A good visit to the U.S. by an Indian Prime Minister is generally viewed as one clear index of India’s standing in the comity of nations. It is, hence, tempting to compare Mr. Modi’s latest visit with that of other Indian Prime Ministers since Independence.
• There were visits by Jawaharlal Nehru and Lal Bahadur Shastri’s visit never happened in the end, while Indira Gandhi’s visit to Washington as Prime Minister was a disaster of sorts, with both India and the U.S. having their own versions of what transpired.
• Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi’s visit was by all accounts deemed a success, breaking many previous shibboleths.
• Admittedly, none of them matched the euphoria created by the visit of two latter day Prime Ministers, Manmohan Singh and Mr. Modi.

THE CIVIL NUCLEAR DEAL MARKED A SHIFT

• Admittedly, the opening up of civil nuclear cooperation between India and the U.S. marked the beginning of a tectonic shift in global affairs at the start of the 21st century, unmatched before or since.
• Securing a waiver under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, and obtaining the approval of the U.S. Congress for the iconic 123 Agreement that paved the way for an India-specific Safeguards Agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
• As a result, India today has the freedom to maintain a select number of reactors outside IAEA Safeguards, enabling it to utilise them for military purposes.
• The freedom India currently enjoys for reprocessing and enrichment are other critical outcomes that stemmed from the visit.

BEING CAUTIOUS, LOOKING AT HISTORY

• The United States of the 21st century is certainly different in many respects from the U.S. in the late 20th century.
• In the euphoria that exists following Mr. Modi’s visit, it is, however, desirable for India to be cautious and heed the lessons of history.
• India certainly is not, at least at this stage, the kind of ally that the U.S. seeks or demands.
• Moreover, U.S. politics is currently in a state of flux — more so than at most times in the past.
• The individual preferences of the U.S. President in office and the ‘swing factor’ in U.S. foreign policy are other aspects that foreign countries, India included, can seldom comprehend adequately.
• India again is not unfamiliar with the way the U.S. changes its priorities, and friends.
• Sober leaders on both sides must also understand that the current euphoria in relations notwithstanding, the situation has been dictated due to circumstance rather than conviction.
• This must not be lost sight of by India in particular. For instance, India cannot possibly be part of an arrangement such as the AUKUS Pact that binds the U.S. with the United Kingdom and Australia.
• The fundamentals underlying the Quad (India, Japan, Australia and the U.S.) and AUKUS are very different.

WAY FORWARD

India must, instead, use the outcome of the Prime Minister’s visit to skilfully function as a ‘bridge power’. It is eminently suited to play such a role, and should not be inveigled — through blandishments such as defence ties — to play the role of a subordinate to the U.S. in the politics of the Asia-Pacific.

General Studies Paper 3

CONTEXT

• The government’s announcement of a long-term road map for further internationalisation of the rupee can turn out to be a positive exercise.

BACKGROUND

• In the 1950s, the Indian rupee was legal tender for almost all transactions in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman and Qatar, with the Gulf monarchies purchasing rupees with the pound sterling.
  • In 1959, to mitigate challenges associated with gold smuggling, the Reserve Bank of India (Amendment) Act was brought in, enabling the creation of the “Gulf Rupee”, with notes issued by the central bank for circulation only in the West Asian region.
  • However, by 1966, India devalued its currency, eventually causing some West Asian countries to replace the Gulf rupee with their own currencies.
  • Flagging confidence in the Indian rupee’s stability combined with an oil-revenue linked boom, slowly led to the introduction of sovereign currencies in the region.
  • The move, in 2023, to withdraw the ₹2,000 note has also impacted confidence in the rupee.
  • The demonetisation of 2016 also shook confidence in the Indian rupee, especially in Bhutan and Nepal.
  • The rupee’s internationalisation cannot make a start without accounting for the concerns expressed by India’s neighbours.

VERY LITTLE INTERNATIONAL DEMAND

• The rupee is far from being internationalised — the daily average share for the rupee in the global foreign exchange market hovers around ~1.6%, while India’s share of global goods trade is ~2%.
• India has taken some steps to promote the internationalisation of the rupee (e.g., enable external commercial borrowings in rupees), with a push to Indian banks to open Rupee Vostro accounts for banks from Russia, the UAE, Sri Lanka and Mauritius.
• However, such transactions have been limited, with India still buying oil from Russia in dollars.
• Ongoing negotiations with Russia to settle trade in rupees have been slow-going, with Russia expected to have an annual rupee surplus of over $40 billion.
• For a currency to be considered a reserve currency, the rupee needs to be fully convertible, readily usable, and available in sufficient quantities.
• India does not permit full capital account convertibility (i.e., allowing free movement of local financial investment assets into foreign assets and vice- versa), with significant constraints on the exchange of its currency with others.

PURSUE THESE REFORMS

• Many reforms can be pursued to internationalise the rupee.
• It must be made more freely convertible, with a goal of full convertibility by 2060 – letting financial investments move freely between India and abroad.
• This would allow foreign investors to easily buy and sell the rupee, enhancing its liquidity and making it more attractive.
• Additionally, the RBI should pursue a deeper and more liquid rupee bond market, enabling foreign investors and Indian trade partners to have more investment options in rupees, enabling its international use.
• Indian exporters and importers should be encouraged to invoice their transactions in rupee.
• Additional currency swap agreements (as with Sri Lanka) would further allow India to settle trade and investment transactions in rupees, without resorting to a reserve currency such as the dollar.
• Additionally, tax incentives to foreign businesses to utilise the rupee in operations in India would also help.
• The RBI and the Ministry of Finance must ensure currency management stability and improve the exchange rate regime.
• More demonetisation (or devaluation) will impact confidence.
• A start could be made to push for making the rupee an official currency in international organisations, thereby giving it a higher profile and acceptability.
• The Tarapore Committees’ (in 1997 and 2006) recommendations must be pursued including a push to reduce fiscal deficits lower than 3.5%, a reduction in gross inflation rate to 3%-5%, and a reduction in gross banking non-performing assets to less than 5%.

CONCLUSION

• The government’s road map for further internationalisation of the rupee will make it easier for Indian businesses to do business/invest abroad and enhance the rupee’s liquidity, while enhancing financial stability. It must also benefit Indian citizens, enterprises and the government’s ability to finance deficits. It is a delicate balance to trade off rupee convertibility for exchange rate stability.

General Studies Paper 2

INTRODUCTION

• India, being a diverse nation, is home to many religions, each with its distinct personal laws governing marriage, divorce, adoption, inheritance and succession. It would be accurate to say that the absence of a Uniform Civil Code (UCC) has only served to perpetuate inequalities and inconsistencies in our land of rich diversity. In fact, this has been a hindrance in the nation’s progress towards social harmony, economic and gender justice.

IN THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY

• The debate on the UCC goes back to the Constituent Assembly debates.
• Constituent Assembly debates shed light on the need and the objective behind promoting a common civil code.
• Babasaheb Ambedkar, the chief architect of the Indian Constitution, had made a strong case in the Constituent Assembly for framing a UCC. He stressed the importance of a UCC in ensuring gender equality and eradicating prevailing social evils.
• Since a consensus on a UCC could not be reached in the Constituent Assembly, the subject found a place under Article 44 of the Directive Principles.
• Thus, Article 44, in a sense, is the Constitutional mandate which requires the state to enact a UCC that applies to all citizens cutting across faiths, practices and personal laws.

THE APEX COURT’S CALL

• It would be also pertinent to point out here that the Supreme Court had dwelt on the matter on more than one occasion.
• The top court had observed in the Shah Bano case that “It is a matter of regret that Article 44 has remained a dead letter.”
• The Court had pointed out that a UCC would help the cause of national integration.
• However, despite articulating its views clearly on the subject in many cases, the Supreme Court refrained from issuing any clear directive to the government being mindful of the fact that the framing of laws falls within the exclusive domain of Parliament.

THE ESSENCE

• The UCC is, therefore, a step in the right direction, long overdue, to safeguard the fundamental rights of all citizens and reduce social inequalities and gender discrimination.
• It should be seen and understood as an attempt at creating a unified legal framework that upholds the principles enshrined in the Constitution and reaffirmed by Supreme Court judgments.
• The doubts in the minds of some and the opposition to this initiative stemming from unfounded apprehensions need to be addressed through enlightened debate and constructive engagement.

• It will serve as a powerful instrument for the promotion of equality and justice for all citizens. Seen in this light, every citizen should welcome it.
• A UCC would eliminate discriminatory practices that deprive women of their rights and provide them with equal opportunities and protections.
• Our diverse society calls for a unified legal framework to foster social cohesion and national integration.
• Personal laws should have a two-dimensional acceptance — they should be constitutionally compliant and consistent with the norms of gender equality and the right to live with dignity.

WAY FORWARD

• Finally, fellow citizens, leaders of religious groups and political parties should rise above all differences and support implementation of the UCC.
• They should contribute to making it an instrument of social reform, a legislative framework fully aligned with principles of justice and equity underscored by the Constitution.
• It will be a yet another step, a very significant one, towards building a new, inclusive, egalitarian India that we all want.

General Studies Paper 3

INTRODUCTION

• Digital platforms and technology have enabled Indian artists and artisans to reach wider audiences. However, they face challenges that are related to economic sustainability, market access, the digital divide, crime in the art world and preservation.

THE CREATIVE ECONOMY

• The creative economy is one of the youngest and fastest-growing sectors, with unique challenges that often go unnoticed by public and private investors.
• There is now growing recognition of the economic importance of the arts sector as it helps in the creation of jobs, economic growth, tourism, exports, and overall societal development.
• Recognising the economic importance of culture, the UNESCO World Conference on Cultural Policies and Sustainable Development (MONDIACULT 2022) was held to address contemporary issues in multicultural societies.
• The goal was to share a vision for the future of cultural policies and to reaffirm the international community’s commitment to leveraging culture’s transformative power for sustainable development.

STATUS OF ARTISTS

• Online platforms, social media, and digital content creation enable artists, writers, film-makers, musicians, and other creatives to engage with audiences, and monetise their talents.
• While Indian artists and artisans play a vital role in preserving traditional art forms and creating contemporary artworks, they face challenges that are related to economic sustainability, market access, and the preservation of traditional art forms in a rapidly changing society.
• Government support, cultural institutions, and initiatives provide financial assistance, training programmes, and opportunities for artists to exhibit their work
• However, more efforts are needed to promote contemporary artists as brands and ensure equal representation and financial assistance.

CHALLENGES, EFFECT AND SOLUTION

• There are challenges in the selection of artists for financial assistance in organising cultural events.
• Lack of transparency in the selection process creates inequality in representation.
• There is no systematic or rotational mechanism in place to provide this assistance, and the selection process is often random or based on subjective criteria.
• Additionally, unlike in other countries, there are no serious efforts by private or public institutions to promote contemporary artists as brands.
• Crime in the art world includes art theft, copyright infringement, forgery, fraud, and illicit trafficking. Addressing these crimes requires increased security measures, international cooperation, public awareness, and advanced technology for authentication and tracking.
• There is no institutional infrastructure, expertise and technology to verify the original artwork. The gap is leading to injustice towards genuine artists.
• These offences affect cultural heritage and cause financial harm and erode public trust.
• Exploitation of Indian artists, unaccounted money preserved through artworks, and the dissemination of disinformation about cultural history through various media only compound the issue.
• Solutions include increased security measures, international cooperation, public awareness, and advanced technology for authentication.
• Regular audits of acquired artworks can enhance trust and preserve a collection’s integrity.

A WORKABLE SOLUTION

• Having a collaborative model promoting the cultural economy is an effective solution to address the challenges faced by the creative economy and promote the economic contribution of culture.
• To promote economic growth, a solution can be to encourage India’s soft power by having a capacity-building centre.
• The needs of artists must be bridged through training, professional development, market access, and participation in larger communities and networks.
• A facilitation centre would help foster knowledge sharing, economic empowerment, and sustainable livelihood solutions for artists and artisans.
• Data analytics should be used to foster creative ecosystems that contribute to a sustainable world.
• The government along with private players can empower artists, help bridge industry gaps, and contribute to the overall development of the creative economy by providing support, resources, and opportunities for innovation and entrepreneurship.

WAY FORWARD

• The centre should also be a platform to provide sustainable livelihood solutions for artists and artisans through participatory models, leveraging the latest ICT tools to enhance their participation in the business ecosystem.
• It is also time for new data that shed light on emerging trends at a global level as well as putting forward policy recommendations to foster creative ecosystems that contribute to a sustainable world.

General Studies Paper 2

CONTEXT

• India benefited as a member of the SCO, but the future is not bright

The SCO

• The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation-Council of Heads of State meeting, hosted by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on Tuesday, marked the first time India chaired the summit of regional countries.
• India became a full SCO member in 2017, along with Pakistan.
• During this 23rd Summit, Iran officially joined the SCO as the Ninth Member Country.
• The theme of India’s chairperson-ship of SCO is ‘Towards a SECURE SCO’, which stands for: S: Security, E: Economic development, C: Connectivity, U: Unity, R: Respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, E: Environmental protection.

THE IMPORTANCE OF SCO

• The government has held that joining the originally Eurasian group was important as member-countries make up a third of the global GDP, a fifth of global trade, a fifth of global oil reserves and about 44% of natural gas reserves.
• Also important is its focus on regional security and connectivity — areas key to India’s growth and making up its challenges, such as terrorism in Pakistan, and Chinese aggressions as well as the Belt and Road Initiative.
• Being “inside the tent” is important, especially as Pakistan is a member, even if that means conducting joint exercises under the SCO Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure.
• The SCO also gives India an interface with Central Asian markets and resources.
• Finally, joining the SCO was a key part of India’s stated ambitions on “multi-alignment” and “strategic autonomy” while becoming a “balancing power” in the world,
• Over the past year, this has become an economic necessity as India has chosen to be neutral on the Ukraine war, benefiting from fuel and fertilizer purchases from Russia.

INDIA’S CHAIRMANSHIP

• It was expected that India’s turn to chair the SCO this year would be a major event, rivalling the expected pomp around the G-20 meet in September.
• In addition, given Russia’s and China’s blocks on the G-20 joint communiqué that India is keen to find consensus on, the SCO summit would have been a convenient venue for Mr. Modi to negotiate a resolution with his counterparts.
• However, India’s decision to postpone the SCO summit due to the Prime Minister’s U.S. State visit, and then to turn it into a virtual summit may have been a dampener on the SCO outcomes.
• India’s concerns with hosting Xi Jinping given the LAC hostilities, or Pakistan Prime Minister Sharif’s possible ‘grandstanding’, or even the optics of welcoming Russian President Vladimir Putin may have been factors.
• Whatever the reason, while the members hammered out a New Delhi declaration and joint statements on radicalisation and digital transformation, the government was unable to forge consensus on other agreements including one on making English a formal SCO language, while India, despite being Chair, did not endorse a road map on economic cooperation, presumably due to concerns over China’s imprint.

CONCLUSION

• With its SCO chairpersonship ending, the government may now be feeling the law of diminishing returns over its SCO engagement — one that might make its task of hosting the G-20 even more difficult.

General Studies Paper 2

CONTEXT

• A study conducted on anaemic pregnant women of low-and middle-income countries has found that there is a strong link between anaemia and postpartum haemorrhage, with the risk of death or near miss very high.
• Anaemia and Pregnancy
• Of late anaemia has been in the news in India, what with the government proposing to remove a question on it from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) and instead do a more elaborate test to determine haemoglobin levels in the blood as part of the Diet and Biomarker (DAB) survey.
• Anaemia has a very strong link with postpartum haemorrhage (excessive vaginal bleeding after delivery), and the risk of death or near miss is very high.
• As per the study, by the WOMAN (World Maternal Antifibrinolytic )-2 trial collaborators, worldwide, more than half a billion women of reproductive age are anaemic.
• Each year, about 70,000 women who give birth die from postpartum haemorrhage, almost all of them in low-and middle-income countries.

BLOOD LOSS AND SHOCK

• There was clear evidence from the study that lower haemoglobin values had a direct relationship with volume blood loss, and clinical postpartum haemorrhage.
• Anaemia reportedly reduces the oxygen- carrying capacity of blood, and therefore, women with anaemia cannot tolerate the same volume of bleeding as healthy women, and become shocked after a smaller volume blood loss.
  • The study also eventually found that a clinical diagnosis of postpartum haemorrhage was highly specific for clinical signs of shock and irrevocably associated with worse maternal function.

PREVENTING ANAEMIA- GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES

• Health is a State subject and the primary responsibility for strengthening health care services including implementation of national programs lies with the respective State/UT government.
• The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare provides financial and technical support to States/UTs under the National Health Mission.
• In 2018, the Government of India launched the Anaemia Mukt Bharat (AMB) strategy with the target to reduce anaemia in the vulnerable age groups such as women, children and adolescents.
• Weekly Iron and Folic Acid Supplementation (WIFS): This Programme is being implemented to meet the challenge of high prevalence and incidence of anaemia amongst adolescent girls and boys.
• Health Management Information System & Mother Child Tracking System: It is being implemented for reporting and tracking the cases of anaemic and severely anaemic pregnant women.
• Universal Screening of Pregnant Women for Anaemia: It is a part of Ante-Natal Care (ANC) and all pregnant women are provided iron and folic acid tablets during their ante- natal visits through the existing network of sub-centres and primary health centres and other health facilities as well as through outreach activities at Village Health & Nutrition Days (VHNDs).
• Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan (PMSMA): It has been launched to focus on conducting special ANC check up on 9th of every month with the help of Medical officers to detect and treat cases of anaemia.

CONCLUSION

• However, the rising levels of anaemia in the country is a source of concern and mandates that any project to bring down anaemia in the country must be on mission mode.
• Any public outreach programme must be mindful of the cultural, social realities and have a sense of the attitudes of the people they are targeting.
• If these factors are not sewn into a public health programme, the outcomes may be far from what was sought or planned.

General Studies Paper 2

CONTEXT

• Leptospirosis has emerged as an important infectious disease in the world today. It is a potentially fatal zoonotic bacterial disease that tends to have large outbreaks after heavy rain or flooding.

ABOUT

• The disease is more prevalent in warm, humid countries and in both urban and rural areas.
• It affects an estimated 1.03 million people every year, killing around 60,000.
• In India, thousands of people are affected by leptospirosis every year.
• However, the numbers at the global and regional levels are not exact because of misdiagnosis (its symptoms mimic those of dengue, malaria, and hepatitis), limited access to reliable diagnostics, lack of awareness among treating physicians, and lack of environmental surveillance.

• Within India, studies have found that leptospirosis is more common in the south, although this could be due to the region’s better healthcare and thus better disease detection.

CAUSES

• The disease is caused by a bacterium called
• Leptospira interrogans, or leptospira.
• It is a contagious disease in animals but is occasionally transmitted to humans in certain environmental conditions.
• The carriers of the disease can be either wild or domestic animals, including rodents, cattle, pigs, and dogs.
• The cycle of disease transmission begins with the shedding of leptospira, usually in the urine of infected animals.

PEOPLES AT RISK

• Humans become part of the cycle when they come in direct contact with this urine or indirectly, through soil and water that contain leptospira bacteria.
• A person is more likely to contract leptospirosis if they have cuts or abrasions on their skin.
• The disease is also considered an occupational hazard for people working in agricultural settings, with animals, or in sanitary services that bring them into contact with contaminated water.
• Recreational activities in contaminated lakes and rivers are also reported to increase the risk of leptospirosis.

THE SYMPTOMS

• The severity of a leptospirosis infection ranges from a mild flu-like illness to being life- threatening.
• The infection can affect many organs, reflecting the systemic nature of the disease. This is also why the signs and symptoms of leptospirosis are often mistaken for other diseases.
• In milder cases, patients could experience a sudden onset of fever, chills, and headache – or no symptoms at all.
• But in severe cases, the disease can be characterised by the dysfunction of multiple organs, including the liver, kidneys, lungs, and the brain.
• Animals exhibit a variety of clinical symptoms and indications. In cattle and pigs, the disease can potentially cause reproductive failure, stillbirths, and weak calves or piglets.

THE MISCONCEPTIONS

• The disease has been called “ili jwara” in Kannada and “eli pani” in Malayalam, both meaning “rat fever”.
• This usage has fed the common belief that rats are the sole cause of the disease, which is not true as Leptospirosis has a spectrum of reservoir hosts, including pigs, cattle, water buffaloes, goats, dogs, horses, and sheep.
• Further, seasonal patterns such as the onset of the monsoon can also potentially facilitate the disease’s incidence and transmission.
• Ambient air that is more humid can help the pathogenic leptospira survive longer in the environment, thus increasing the risk of disease exposure in the community.
• The incidence of the disease is also linked to extreme weather events like floods and hurricanes, when people are exposed to contaminated water.
• Similarly, poor waste management, a high density of stray animals, faulty drainage systems, and unhygienic sanitation facilities are major drivers of the disease in urban areas.
• In rural parts, these are contaminated paddy fields, dirty livestock shelters, and poor water- quality and sanitation.

PREVENTING LEPTOSPIROSIS

• Leptospirosis control can benefit from a ‘One Health’ approach.
• ‘One Health’ is an interdisciplinary approach that recognises the interconnections between the health of humans, animals, plants, and their shared environment.
• People who frequently interact with animals or their urine should exercise particular caution, such as by wearing personal protective equipment like gloves and boots.
• Preventing animals from getting infected is also important to reduce the risk of leptospirosis spreading and to limit farmers’ economic losses.
• This in turn requires sanitary animal-keeping conditions, which is also desirable to improve the animals’ health and to prevent the spread of many diseases.
• Given the spike in leptospirosis during the monsoons, it is best to take precautions, including washing one’s arms and legs with an antiseptic liquid after handling animal waste and after working in water.

WAY FORWARD

• In sum, with ‘One Health’ in mind, public health professionals must work closely with the animal husbandry department to familiarise people about the dangers of leptospirosis, and create countermeasures that work for the health of both people and animals.

General Studies Paper 3

INTRODUCTION

• It will be fair to say that many of us have been looking forward to the monsoon this year, eager to put behind us one of the hottest summers ever on record. With each passing year, India has been experiencing more and more instances of severe heatwaves, rendering these months more and more dreadful.

THE REPORTS

• A recent report from the India Meteorological Department (IMD) indicated an increasing trend in the number and duration of heatwaves, based on data from March to June from 1961 to 2020.
• This year, heatwaves started as early as on March 3, and many areas reported temperatures that were higher than average. The number of days with temperatures exceeding 30 degrees Celsius has also increased of late.
• The U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Sixth Assessment Report warned of prolonged rain-free periods along with excessive rainfall in many parts of the world. In recent decades, India has recorded several such extreme events.

• An October 2017 study conducted by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune, reported that there was a three-fold increase in widespread extreme events from 1950 to 2015.

CHANGING WEATHER PATTERNS

• Climate change is increasing both the frequency and the intensity of extreme weather events.
• In India, for one, normal monsoon patterns have given way to, among others, delayed onset, short but intense bursts of rain, and delayed withdrawal.
• Some weather events have also become drier and others wetter thanks to the effects of climate change on the water cycle, which leads to more evaporation and eventually causes more precipitation.
• Some areas also experience heavier than normal precipitation while others are becoming prone to unexpected droughts.
• High monsoon rainfall variability and continuous warming raise the probability of dry and hot extremes, with profound implications for agriculture, water resources, and India’s overall economy.
• There is also a strong connection between land and ocean heatwaves, driven by atmospheric circulation, increase in sea-surface temperature, and feedback mechanisms that exacerbate the intensity and duration of extreme temperatures.

ROLE OF MARINE HEATWAVES

• The oceans play a key role in the formation of monsoon winds and in keeping the monsoon alive.
• When extreme heat warms their waters, the change in temperature can lead to cascading effects, such as marine heatwaves, ocean acidification, sea-level rise, and ice melting faster at the poles.
• Marine heatwaves are periods of temperature much higher than the average seasonal temperature in that region.
• The Indian Ocean recorded six marine heatwaves over a period of 52 days in 2021. They used to be rare in this water-body but today are an annual occurrence.
• A low pressure develops over the Indian subcontinent when the land heats up during the summer. The moisture for monsoon rains is thus carried by the winds as they blow in from the Indian Ocean.
• However, rainfall over the land decreases when ocean heatwaves occur, as the winds are drawn to areas over the ocean instead of land.

CLIMATE RISK AMPLIFICATION

• Amplification is what happens when certain climate- related factors and/or events interact with each other or happen at the same time, intensifying or exacerbating the overall risks and consequences associated with climate change.
• A good example is the warm and dry conditions that have put Canada on course for its worst-ever wildfire destruction this year.
• Such amplification happens in the form of various feedback loops and interconnected processes in the earth’s climate system and also occur as a result of an El Niño, prolonged hot days, dry monsoons, and/or ocean heatwaves occurring together, compounding risks across sectors.
• Such a combination will also affect water availability, soil moisture, and crop output while increasing food prices and lowering incomes.
• The co-occurrence of heatwaves and droughts can also lead to wildfires, tree mortality, and a higher risk of thermal power-plant failures.
• Ultimately, the risks can push sensitive and vulnerable systems over a tipping point, ultimately avalanching into drastic consequences for socio-ecological systems.

WAY FORWARD

• Amplified climate risks underscore the urgency of taking proactive measures to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, adapt to changing conditions, and enhance resilience in both natural and human systems.
• Identifying compound event hotspots and monitoring them are important to frame suitable adaptation strategies.
• By understanding and addressing these amplification mechanisms, we will be able to reduce the overall risk associated with climate change and build a more sustainable and resilient future.