General Studies Paper -2

Context: A parliamentary committee examining Bill seeking to raise the age of marriage of women from the present 18 years to 21 has been given another extension to table its report.

• The Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill, 2021,was introduced in the Lok Sabha in 2021 and was referred to the Standing Committee on Education, Women, Children, Youth and Sports.

The Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill, 2021

• The Bill amends the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 to increase the minimum age of marriage of females to 21 years.  Further, the Bill will override any other law, custom, or practice.
• Under the 2006 Act, a person married below the minimum age may apply for annulment within two years of attaining majority (i.e., before 20 years of age).  The Bill increases this to five years (i.e., 23 years of age).

Legal Age of Marriage in India

• According to the National Family Health Survey 2019-21 (NFHS-5),23% of women between the age of 20 and 24 were married before 18 years of age.
• In India, the practice of child marriage was first legally prohibited through the Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929.
• As per the 1929 Act, marriage of girls below the age of 14 years and boys below the age of 18 years was prohibited.  
• This Act was amended in 1978 to increase the minimum age to 18 years for females, and 21 years for men.  
• The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006replaced the 1929 Act, with the same minimum age limits.

Arguments in Favour of Increasing the Marriageable Age:

• Educational Opportunities: Increasing the marriageable age to 21 in India can contribute to higher educational attainment for women.
• Career Development: Raising the marriageable age provides Indian women with the chance to focus on building their careers before entering into marital commitments.
• This can lead to increased workforce participation, financial independence, and professional development, contributing to the economic growth of the country.
• Health and Maternal Well-being: Women who marry later are generally more physically and emotionally prepared for pregnancy and childbirth, contributing to reduced maternal and infant mortality rates.
• Gender Equality: Raising the marriageable age aligns with the principles of gender equality by providing both men and women with similar opportunities for personal and professional growth.
• Empowerment of Women: Delaying marriage empowers women by allowing them more time to explore their own aspirations and make informed decisions about their lives.
• Reducing Child Marriages: Increasing the marriageable age serves as a legal deterrent to child marriages, protecting young girls from the physical, emotional, and social consequences associated with early unions.
• Social and Emotional Maturity: At the age of 21, individuals are likely to have a better understanding of themselves, their goals, and the responsibilities that come with marriage.
• Population Control: Delaying marriage can contribute to better family planning and population control.

Arguments Against Increasing the Marriageable Age:

• Cultural and Traditional Variability: Critics argue that different communities have their own norms and expectations regarding the appropriate age for marriage. Imposing a uniform age limit may not align with the cultural variability across the nation.
• Individual Freedom and Autonomy: Some individuals may be emotionally and mentally prepared for marriage at 18, and imposing a higher age limit may be seen as restricting their personal choices and decision-making abilities.
• Legal Consistency: Critics may point out that the legal age for voting and consenting to sexual activity in India is already 18.
• Setting a different age for marriage introduces inconsistency in the legal framework, and opponents argue that individuals should be considered mature enough for all legal responsibilities at the same age.
• Role of Parents and Family Decision-Making: Increasing the marriageable age undermines the role of parents and families in decision-making.
• Unintended Consequences on Relationships: Delaying marriage could result in individuals entering into premarital relationships without the legal commitment of marriage.
• This may lead to a shift in societal norms and values, which some may view as having negative consequences.
• Social Stigma and Marital Status: Imposing a higher marriageable age could result in social stigma for individuals who choose to marry earlier.
• This may lead to societal judgments and challenges for those who do not conform to the new legal age limit.
• Female Foeticide:The pressure to educate young girls until 21 among poor families will increase the rate of sex-selective abortion in the country.
• Safety Concerns:The fear of rape or elopement will also loom large, especially in the rural areas due to the proposed law.

Way Ahead

• The result lies in empowering youthful girls, encouraging them to get educated and achieve fiscal autonomy education for girls, and conducting mindfulness programs on the ill goods of non-age marriages.
• Government should subsidized education and healthcare installations in order to insure that girl’s right to live a life of her choice is admired and preserved.
• Government should also come with an on- ground medium to spread mindfulness and apply this policy change rigorously for the benefits to reflect in the society.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: This article discusses the political and military situation in Myanmar. It describes how, since a military coup three years ago, there has been resistance against the army, involving various ethnic armed groups and local defense forces.

What are the consequences of the Myanmar military coup?

• Widespread Civil Disobedience:Following the coup, a significant civil disobedience movement emerged, indicating widespread public opposition to the military takeover.
• Formation of Resistance Forces: The ousted parliament members established the People’s Defence Forces (PDFs), demonstrating organized political resistance against the military.
• Escalating Armed Conflict:Ethnic armed organizations, like the Arakan Army, Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army, and Ta’ang National Liberation Army, inflicted significant losses on the military, especially in Shan State.
• Loss of Territorial Control:The military’s loss of Paletwa town, a critical node in India’s Kaladan project, exemplifies the significant territorial setbacks they faced.
• Internal Displacement and Refugees:Military actions against civilians caused substantial internal displacement and a refugee crisis in neighboring countries.
• Military Recruitment and Desertions:There’s growing difficulty in military recruitment and increased desertions, including over 150 soldiers seeking refuge in India.
• Diminished Military Cohesion:The punishment of army officers for failing to prevent desertions points to internal issues and weakening cohesion within the military.

What is the position of Myanmar’s neighboring countries on the military coup?

China’s Position:

• Defends Myanmar Military:China supports the Myanmar military on international platforms.
• Engagement with Ethnic Armed Groups:China maintains relations with ethnic armed organizations on Myanmar’s northern border, indicating a strategic balance.
• Ceasefire Facilitation:China’s involvement in negotiating a ceasefire between rebels and the Myanmar army suggests its significant influence in the region.

ASEAN’s Stance:

• Exclusion of Myanmar Military:ASEAN has denied the Myanmar military participation in its summits.
• Limited Mediation Success:Despite efforts, the ASEAN special envoy faced challenges in engaging with all relevant stakeholders in Myanmar.

Thailand’s Approach:

• Thailand shares a 2,416 km border with Myanmar, giving it substantial influence.
• The Thai Foreign Minister interacted with both Myanmar’s military leadership and Aung San Suu Kyi, reflecting direct diplomatic engagement.
• Thailand hosts Myanmar exile organizations and has escalated humanitarian assistance, showcasing its multifaceted involvement in the crisis.

What should India do?

• Enhance Humanitarian Aid:India could increase its humanitarian assistance to help displaced people in Myanmar, which might also reduce the number of refugees entering India.
• Recognize Ongoing Resistance: India should be aware of the continuous resistance against the military coup, showing no signs of abating despite the lack of a charismatic leader and substantial international support.
• Adapt to Myanmar’s Political Fragmentation:It’s important for India to consider the fragmented control in Myanmar, with different areas being controlled by the military, ethnic armed groups, and PDFs.
• Reassess Policy with Stakeholder Input: India could benefit from revising its Myanmar policy after engaging in discussions with all relevant parties, responding to the complex regional dynamics.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: Humboldt’s enigma is one of many puzzles of mountain biodiversity.

• The world’s tropical areas receive more energy from the Sun and have greater primary productivity, which facilitates greater biological diversity.
• Alexander von Humboldt, has observed that mountains contribute disproportionately to the terrestrial biodiversity of Earth, especially in the tropics, where they host hotspots of extraordinary and puzzling richness.

What is Humboldt’s enigma?

• Humboldt’s enigma held that the earth’s tropical areas don’t contain all the biodiverse regions. There are many areas outside the tropics that are highly biodiverse. These places are mountains.
• There is a relationship between temperature, altitude, and humidity on one hand and the occurrence patterns of species (or their biodiversity) on the other.

Indian Scenario

• In the case of India the biodiversity in tropical areas, south of the Tropic of Cancer are supposed to be the most diverse in the country.
• The Western Ghats and Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot lies in this zone.
• However, the Eastern Himalayas are much more diverse. The area is often considered the second-most diverse area of perching birds in the world.

Reasons of high biodiversity in mountain range

• Geological processes, like uplifts, result in new habitats where new species arise, so the habitats are ‘cradles’.
• Species on some climatologically stable mountains persist there for a long time, so these spots are ‘museums’ that accumulate many such species over time.
• The more heterogeneous the geological composition of mountains is, the more biodiverse they are.

Examples of Humboldt’s enigma

• Coastal tropical sky islands (mountains surrounded by lowlands), like the Shola Sky Islands in the Western Ghats.
• Here, old lineages have persisted on the mountain tops as climates and habitats fluctuated around them in the lower elevations.
• The oldest bird species in the Western Ghats, such as the Sholicola and the Montecincla, are housed on the Shola Sky Islands.
• The northern Andes range in South America is considered the most biodiverse place in the world.
• Different temperatures and rainfall levels support tropical evergreen biomes in the lower elevation to the alpine and tundra biomes near the top.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) has raised alarms on escalating disruptions to global trade due to the geopolitical tensions and climate change affecting the world’s key trade routes.

Waterways

• Waterways are the most suitable and cheapest for international trade.
• International trade is carried out through ports and harbours which are connected with hinterlands through railways, roads or inland waterways.
• It can be classified as national and international transportation.
• The water transport can be divided into two parts: Inland water transport and Ocean water transport.

Major Choke Points in International Trade Sea Route

• Strait of Hormuz:Located between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, the Strait of Hormuz is a crucial passage for oil shipments from the Middle East.
• A significant portion of the world’s oil supply passes through this choke point.
• Malacca Strait:Situated between the Malay Peninsula and the Indonesian island of Sumatra, the Malacca Strait is one of the busiest waterways globally.
• It connects the Indian Ocean to the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean, making it a key route for trade between Europe, the Middle East, and East Asia.
• Suez Canal:Connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, the Suez Canal is a vital shortcut for ships traveling between Europe and Asia.
• It significantly reduces the travel distance and time compared to the alternative route around the southern tip of Africa.
• Panama Canal: Linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Panama Canal is crucial for maritime trade between the Americas, Europe, and Asia.
• It allows ships to bypass the lengthy and treacherous journey around the southern tip of South America.
• Taiwan Strait:Separating Taiwan from mainland China, the Taiwan Strait is essential for shipping in the East Asian region. It is a heavily trafficked waterway for goods moving between China, Taiwan, Japan, and other Asian nations.

Disruptions on Trade Routes

• Suez Canal: UNCTAD estimates that the weekly transits going through the Suez Canal decreased by 42%over the last two months.
• About 12 percent of global trade passes through the Suez Canal.
• Ships are now being forced to take the Cape of Good Hope route, which entails circumnavigating the entire African continent, it is now taking them 37–41 daysto reach their destination as compared to 27 days through Suez Canal.
• Panama Canal:Simultaneously, the Panama Canal, a pivotal conduit for global trade, is grappling with diminished water levels, resulting in a staggering 36% reduction in total transits over the past month compared to a year ago.
• Panama Canal accounts for six percent of global trade.
• A vessel taking the Cape Horn route, instead of the Panama Canal, takes 18 additional days of travel time.
• The crisis in the Red Sea, marked by Houthi-led attacks disrupting shipping routes, has added another layer of complexity.

Implications

• Increase in Trade Cost:The cumulative effect of these disruptions translates into extended cargo travel distances, escalating trade costs, and a surge in greenhouse gas emissions from shipping having to travel greater distances and at greater speed.
• Avoiding the Suez and Panama Canal necessitates more days of shipping, resulting in increased expenses.
• Environmental Concerns:Additionally, ships are compelled to travel faster to compensate for detours, burning more fuel per mile and emitting more CO2, further exacerbating environmental concerns.
• Increases in Food and Energy Prices:Prolonged interruptions, particularly in container shipping, pose a direct threat to global supply chains, potentially leading to delayed deliveries and heightened costs.
• Energy prices are witnessing a surge as gas transits are discontinued, directly impacting energy supplies, especially in Europe.
• Impact on developing countries: Developing countries are particularly vulnerable to these disruptions.

Way Ahead

• The organization emphasizes the urgent need for swift adaptations from the shipping industry and robust international cooperation to navigate the rapid reshaping of global trade dynamics.

The current challenges underscore trade’s vulnerability to geopolitical tensions and climate-related challenges, demanding collective efforts for sustainable solutions especially in support of countries more vulnerable to these shocks.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The article discusses the impact of poor nutrition on health issues like anemia in India. It covers government efforts to improve nutrition through programs and food fortification, the shift in dietary patterns, and the importance of awareness and education to tackle these challenges.

What is nutritional deficiencies?

Nutritional deficiency occurs when a body lacks essential nutrients due to insufficient nutrient-rich food intake (primary deficiency) or medical conditions hindering nutrient absorption (secondary deficiency). It can lead to various health issues but is preventable or resolvable through a balanced diet or targeted nutrient consumption.

What are the factors contributing to nutritional deficiencies in India?

• Poor Dietary Choices: Shift from traditional diverse diets to processed, sugar-rich foods.
• Economic Constraints:As per FAO, 46% of South Asia’s population, including India, can’t afford a balanced diet. Around 74% of Indians can’t afford a healthy diet, and 39% lack a nutrient-adequate diet (State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World, 2023).
• Health Conditions: Diseases like celiac and infections lead to nutrient absorption issues.
• Lack of Awareness: Misunderstandings about fortified foods hinder acceptance.
• Implementation Challenges: Government programs like Anemia Mukt Bharat face operational difficulties.

What are the impacts of nutritional deficiencies?

• Health-Related Concerns:Nutritional deficiencies cause conditions like iron deficiency anemia, impair the immune system, and lead to digestive issues. These are especially prevalent in children and women.
• Intergenerational Effects: Anemic mothers often give birth to anemic babies, creating a cycle of malnutrition across generations.

What government initiatives are in place to address nutritional deficiencies?

• Anaemia Mukt Bharat (AMB): Focuses on administering iron and folic acid tablets, especially targeting children and women, to tackle iron deficiency anaemia.
• Mid-day Meal Scheme: Aimed at school children, this scheme provides nutritious meals during school hours to improve their overall nutrition.
• Large-Scale Food Fortification (LSFF): Involves fortifying staple foods like wheat flour, rice, and edible oils with essential micronutrients. This is a relatively new approach in India to combat widespread nutritional deficiencies.
• National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control Programme:Introduced in 1992, it significantly reduced goitre rates through the adoption of iodised salt. This program is an example of successful nutrient fortification in India.
• Enhance Awareness: Implement intensive IEC (Information, Education, and Communication) campaigns to educate about fortified foods and nutrition.

Way forward:

• Promote Balanced Diets:Encourage traditional diets rich in cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, and nuts, moving away from processed foods.
• Strengthen Government Programs:Improve execution of Anaemia Mukt Bharat and the Mid-day Meal Scheme for better effectiveness.
• Expand Food Fortification:Broaden LSFF (Large-Scale Food Fortification) to include more staples, learning from the success of the iodised salt program.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The article discusses the importance and challenges faced by Panchayati Raj Institutions in India, especially with regards to funds.

Background:

Recently, the RBI’s report on ‘Finances of Panchayati Raj Institutions’ was released. It helps in understanding the fiscal health of the third tier of government in India: local institutions of governance.

Why are Panchayati Raj Institutions important?

1. Governance and Rural Development: Critical to providing local governance and helping in rural developmen This is important as almost 69% of our population resides in rural areas
2. Implementation of Policies: Significant role in translating the vision and developmental policies of both the Central and State governments into action.
3. Familiarity with Local Needs: Local governments have a more detailed information on the local needs of citizens than any higher level of government. This makes them best suited to provide basic public goods and services, such as health, education, sanitation, etc.

What are the challenges with Panchayati Raj Institutions?

1. Funds:Inadequate independent financial resources and heavy reliance on grants from upper tiers of government.
2. Functionaries: Lack of trained manpower.
3. Functions: Lack of political will (to devolve more power and functions to local governments).
4. Weak infrastructure.
5. Regional Disparities: The devolution of powers and functions to panchayats (and their performance) varies greatly across states (India’s southern states have done better than others).

According to the author, the main challenge is inadequate resources.

What are the issues with PRI finances?

1. Lack of Own Revenues: PRIs have done little to augment their own revenues—items like property tax, fees and fines.
2. Dependence on Transfers: PRIs have preferred the option of transfers from higher levels of government. This reliance on grants has meant they are not financially self-reliant, restricting their power to take spending decisions.

It is against the principle of subsidiarity, which means that higher levels of government should perform only those functions that cannot be effectively performed at the local level.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The article discusses the issues with using Aadhaar-Based Payment Systems (ABPS) in MGNREGS wage payments.

Background:

Recently, the Rural Development Ministry made Aadhaar-Based Payment Systems (ABPS) mandatory in the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS).

There are 2 modes of wage payments in MGNREGS: account-based and ABPS. As per the government’s data, out of 25.6 crore registered workers, only 16.9 crore workers are eligible for ABPS while all are eligible for account-based payments.

How are payments made through ABPS?

For ABPS, the following procedure needs to be done:

• First, a worker’s Aadhaar number must be linked to their job card. Authentication is successful only when all the details including spelling and gender match.
• Second, Aadhaar must be linked to the bank account.
• Third, the Aadhaar number of each worker must be mapped correctly through their bank branch with a software mapper of the National Payments Corporation of India.

The Aadhaar number acts as the financial address and cash transferred gets deposited to the last Aadhaar-linked bank account.

What are some other issues with using ABPS in MGNREGS payments?

1. Lack of Evidence: No credible evidence supporting the decision to shift to ABPS was provided by the government.
2. Complex Procedure: Incorrectness in any of the steps for ABPS means that the worker is denied work, does not receive wages, or is not paid in their preferred account.
3. Spelling Mismatches: Since different administrative units are involved in creating different documents in rural areas, spelling mismatches are common.

Hence, according to the authors, the difficulties in resolving problems with ABPS are more than the difficulties in resolving problems with account-based payments and hence, account-based payments are advocated.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The article discusses the issues with climate change treaties and the steps that can be undertaken to tackle them.

According to the author, the Dubai Agreement, as part of the UN Climate Change Conference in Dubai (COP28), will not have much impact on combating climate change.

What are the issues with Climate Change Treaties?

1. Voluntary Commitments Not Working: Voluntary commitments entail no accountability. For instance, at the formation of the UNFCCC in 1992, all countries committed to preventing climate change, but emissions have continued to rise.
2. Issues with Economic Models: Economic models that intend to identify optimal climate policies often underestimate the benefits of emissions reductions and overestimate their costs.
3. Not Considered Important: In a world of urgent challenges, policymakers and the public have limited attention for climate change.
4. Non-Cooperative Unilateral Approaches:For instance, EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM).  This prevents cooperation.

What should be done to tackle the Issues with Climate Change Treaties?

As shown by the Montreal Protocol (which bars participating countries from trading in ozone-depleting chemicals (CFCs)) with non-participating countries) and MARPOL (access to ports is restricted to ships that meet certain technical standards), the following steps can make climate change treaties more effective:

1. Targeted Approach: Agreements should aim at achieving progress in narrow, but crucial, economic sectors.
   For instance, the Montreal Protocol, which protects the stratospheric ozone layer.
2. Legal Obligations: Unlike the voluntary commitments made at each climate-change COP, these two treaties established binding obligations that can be enforced through international trade markets.
3. Positive Feedback Loop:The more countries that agree to participate, the higher the pressure on others to join.
4. “Common but Differentiated” Responsibilities: To succeed, international climate agreements must be compatible with countries’ economic strategies. They should include provisions whereby richer countries agree to help poorer countries in terms of finance or technology.

These steps should be replicated for other major emissions sources. For instance, Aluminum production.

Through these changes, the world will have a better chance to achieve rapid and equitable transition to net-zero emissions.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The article discusses the challenges in achieving 100% coverage under the Jal Jeevan Mission. It also highlights what needs to be done to ensure it.

Background:

Launched in 2019, the Jal Jeevan Mission aims to achieve the objective of providing piped water in adequate quantities and of prescribed quality on a regular and long-term basis to every rural household in India (55 litre per capita per day of water).

Data shows 73.57% of the rural households have already been covered by this flagship scheme.

What are the Challenges in achieving 100% Coverage?

There are challenges in achieving 100% coverage.
For instance, 3 states — Rajasthan, Jharkhand, and West Bengal — are way below the national average (73%), and even below the halfway mark (50%) of providing functional tap water connections to every household. These challenges include:

1. Geographic Challenges:Rajasthan’s arid and rocky terrain, unlike UP’s plains, is not very conducive to piped water supply. Also, the state has the issue of generally low availability of water.
2. Political Challenges: For instance, change of government in the state in the recent elections has also slowed the implementation in Rajasthan, as per the author.
3. Sustainable Source: Unless the source of water is sustainable (such as through replenishment by groundwater recharge), the supply would become a long-term issue.
4. Lack of Urgency: For instance, West Bengal has plenty of water, which may have taken away the urgency required to implement the scheme. It has also led to the problem of contamination, which requires a much greater focus on treatment and supply.
5. Raw Material Supply (Pipes): The more immediate challenge has been the rising demand for duct iron pipes, which are an important raw material for piped water connections and its timely supply.
6. Reaching the Last Mile: Providing clean drinking water for PVTGs is part of the recently launched PM JANMAN scheme. The launch of this initiative makes it necessary to reach far-flung areas, which will be a challenge.

What should be done?

1. Planning Sustainability of Water Source: This must be done by the panchayat. Villagers do not know how much water there is in the groundwater aquifers. Communities must be empowered in aquifer and groundwater management.
   In this respect, states have put in place an implementation support agency to handhold the communities and train them in operation and maintenance of water connections for the next 3-4 years.
2. Correct Identification of Area:Appropriate area must be selected after field survey to house all three water supply units: The water treatment plan, storage unit, and distribution channel (meaning taps).
3. Maintenance of Infrastructure: The Centre has asked states to come up with a plan and decide on a mix of user charges and government subsidy for the upkeep of the drinking water infrastructure.
4. Records indicate that many states that did not perform well initially have progressed fast in the last two years. For instance, Uttar Pradesh, with only around 20% coverage in 2022, has improved it to above 76%.

According to the author, once everyone has a tap water connection, the way forward would be to ensure the quality is improved alongside the volume of supply.