General Studies Paper-2

Context: Anti-corruption ombudsman Lokpal has constituted an inquiry wing for conducting preliminary probe into graft-related offenses committed by public servants.

Inquiry Wing of Lokpal

• To discharge its statutory functions, Section 11 of the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act 2013, obligates the Lokpal to constitute an inquiry wing.
  • The purpose of the wing is conducting preliminary inquiry into any offense punishable under the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988, alleged to have been committed by the specified public servants and functionaries.
• The Lokpal chairperson has been authorized to commence the selection process for appointment of a specified number of suitable persons as officers and staff required to provide logistical assistance in the inquiry wing.

Structure of the Inquiry Wing

• The bench of the Lokpal had approved organogram providing for the staffing pattern and specified number of suitable officers and staff for the inquiry wing.
• According to the organogram, there will be a Director of Inquiry under the Lokpal chairperson.
  • The director will be assisted by three Superintendents of Police (SPs) — SP (general), SP (economic and banking) and SP (cyber).
  • Each SP will be further assisted by inquiry officers and other staff.

Issue with Lokpal

• Operational Delays: Operational efficiency is hampered by delays in appointments. For instance, there was a 21 month delay in appointing a new Lokpal after the post fell vacant in May 2022.
  • Although the Lokpal Act was enacted in 2014, the institution only became functional in 2019, which reflects significant delays in its operationalization.
• Pending Complaints: According to recent data, the Lokpal has a backlog of pending complaints. As of July 2024, 52 graft-related complaints were still awaiting action, indicating that the institution struggles to manage its caseload effectively.
• Jurisdictional Conflicts: Overlapping jurisdictions with other vigilance agencies cause conflicts, creating confusion over authority and responsibility in investigations, which delays action against corrupt officials.
• Prosecution Wing Not Constituted: Despite the provision in the Lokpal Act for setting up a prosecution wing headed by a Director of Prosecution, this has yet to be constituted.
• Political Influence and Interference: The Lokpal’s appointment committee includes members from political parties, which raises concerns about political interference.
• Ambiguity in Selection of Eminent Jurists: The vague criteria for appointing “eminent jurists” and “persons of integrity” can be manipulated to favor political choices.
• No Constitutional Backing: The Lokpal lacks constitutional status, which weakens its institutional authority and durability.

Way Forward

• The Lokpal remains a significant institution in India’s fight against corruption. A powerful and independent Lokpal can play a pivotal role in fostering a culture of transparency and accountability within the Indian government.
• By addressing the challenges and implementing necessary reforms, India can maximize the effectiveness of this crucial anti-corruption institution.
• There is a need to grant greater powers to the Lokpal to independently initiate investigations, enforce prosecutions, and implement punishments to enhance its effectiveness.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Turkey’s bid to join BRICS could be a political move to gain leverage in its stalled EU accession process or signal frustration with the EU.

Benefits:

1. Increases Turkey’s global influence.
2. Provides economic cooperation with emerging markets.
3. Strengthens Turkey’s political leverage in EU negotiations.

Concerns:

1. Strains relations with the EU and NATO.
2. Undermines Turkey’s credibility within Western alliances.
3. Risks diplomatic isolation from Western powers.

India’s stance on expansion:

India welcomed the consensus-based expansion of the BRICS grouping during the 15th BRICS summit in Johannesburg.

• The move strengthens BRICS as a representative of developing countries
• India has proposed creating a BRICS space consortium, investing in skill mapping, technology, and education, and emphasising cooperation for conservation efforts.
• The expansion is aimed at making BRICS future-ready by enhancing cooperation, digital solutions, and development initiatives.

Significance for India:

• The addition of new members to BRICS holds significance for India in terms of expanding partnerships and geopolitical influence, while also raising concerns about potential pro-China dominance within the alliance.

About BRICS:

• BRICS (founded: 2009; HQ: Shanghai) is an acronym for the grouping of the world’s leading emerging economies, namely Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (included in 2010)
• Origin: The term “BRIC” was coined by the British Economist Jim O’Neill in 2001 to describe the four emerging economies of Brazil, Russia, India, and China.
• Share of BRICS: BRICS brings together five of the largest developing countries, representing 41% of the global population, 24% of the global GDP, and 16% of the global trade (By 2028, BRICS is expected to make up 35 per cent of the global economy)
• Chairmanship: The chairmanship of the forum is rotated annually among the members, in accordance with the acronym B-R-I-C-S. South Africa is the chair for 2023.

Initiatives of BRICS        

1. New Development Bank (NDB)
2. Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA)
3. BRICS Payment System
4. Customs Agreements
5. Remote Sensing Satellite

• New Initiative: BRICS is planning to launch its own “new currency” system, a major step towards de-dollarization (reducing dependence on the US dollar for trade)

Challenges for BRICS:

• Economic Divergence; Brazil and Russia have been experiencing economic recessions in recent years, while China and India have sustained high growth rates. South Africa’s economy has been performing poorly, with high levels of unemployment and inequality.
• Political Differences; Russia’s annexation of Crimea and involvement in conflicts in Ukraine and Syria have strained its relations with other BRICS members. China’s territorial claims in the South China Sea have been a source of tension with other BRICS countries that have competing claims in the region.
• Institutional Constraints; The New Development Bank (NDB), established by BRICS in 2014 to provide development financing, has faced challenges in disbursing loans and identifying viable projects. The Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA), a pool of foreign exchange reserves, has not been tested yet.
• Coordination Difficulties; Disagreements over the governance structure of the NDB and the CRA, as well as differing priorities in areas such as trade, investment, and climate change, have made it difficult for BRICS to present a unified front on many issues.
• External Pressures; The rise of protectionism, nationalism, and populism in some advanced economies has posed challenges for BRICS in terms of trade, investment, and access to capital.

Way forward for BRICS:

• Reform of Multilateral Institutions: BRICS countries could jointly advocate for the reform of the UN Security Council, calling for the inclusion of more developing countries as permanent members.
• Resolve to Combat Terrorism: BRICS countries could share best practices and intelligence to combat terrorism, as well as work together to cut off funding and resources for terrorist groups.
• Promoting Technological and Digital Solutions for the SDGs: BRICS countries could share their experiences in adopting and implementing digital solutions in these sectors
• Expanding People-to-People Cooperation: BRICS countries could organize joint cultural events and exhibitions, establish more student exchange programs and scholarships, and encourage more tourism and business visits to each other’s countries.

Conclusion:

• While BRICS membership might strengthen Turkey’s global presence, it could strain relations with the EU, which expects alignment with its values and foreign policy. Turkey’s balancing act between the West and non-Western alliances could backfire, further diminishing its credibility within transatlantic circles. However, Turkey remains crucial due to its strategic location, making its foreign policy a complex balancing act.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The Global E-waste Monitor 2024, brought out by United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), International Telecommunication Union (ITU), and Fondation Carmignac, a corporate foundation.

Key findings

• The world produced 62 billion kg of electronic waste (e-waste) in 2022.
  • That number is projected to rise to 82 billion kg in 2030
• The world’s generation of electronic waste is rising five times faster than documented e-waste recycling
• The report also highlighted the composition of the 62 billion kg of e-waste.
  • It contained 31 billion kg of metals, 17 billion kg of plastics and 14 billion kg of other materials (minerals, glass, composite materials, etc.)
• Region wise: Among regions, Europe has the highest rate of documented formal collection and recycling of e-waste at 42.8 percent.
  • Meanwhile, Africa generates the lowest rates of e-waste but struggles to recycle it.
  • Countries in Asia generate almost half of the world’s e-waste (30 billion kg) but have made limited advances in e-waste management; moreover, relatively few of them have enacted legislation or established clear e-waste collection targets.

Impacts and Challenges

• E-waste, any discarded product with a plug or battery, is a health and environmental hazard, containing toxic additives or hazardous substances such as mercury, which can damage the human brain and coordination system
• Challenges contributing to the widening gap include technological progress, higher consumption, limited repair options, shorter product life cycles, society’s growing electronification, design shortcomings, and inadequate e-waste management infrastructure.

Global policy

• On the policy front, 81 countries have adopted e-waste policy, legislation or regulation. Sixty-seven countries have legal provisions on EPR for e-waste.
• Another 46 have provisions on e-waste collection rate targets. Finally, 36 countries have provisions on e-waste recycling rate targets.

Status in India

• The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has comprehensively revised the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016 and notified the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 in November, 2022 and the same is in force since 1st April, 2023.
• These new rules intend to manage e-waste in an environmentally sound manner and put in place an improved Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) regime for e-waste recycling wherein all the manufacturer, producer, refurbisher and recycler are required to register on a portal developed by the CPCB.
• The new provisions would facilitate and channelize the informal sector to the formal sector for doing business and ensure recycling of E-waste in an environmentally sound manner.
• Provisions for environmental compensation and verification & audit have also been introduced.

Suggestions

• Amidst the hopeful embrace of solar panels and electronic equipment to combat the climate crisis and drive digital progress, the surge in e-waste requires urgent attention.
• There is an immediate call for greater investment in infrastructure development, more promotion of repair and reuse, capacity building, and measures to stop illegal e-waste shipments.
• Concrete steps are urgently needed to address and reduce e-waste.
• Improved e-waste management could result in a global net positive of US $38 billion, representing a significant economic opportunity while addressing climate change and health impacts.
• We must seize the economic and environmental benefits of proper e-waste management; otherwise, the digital ambitions of our future generations will face significant risks.
• Monitoring the quantities and flows of e-waste is essential for evaluating developments over time, and to set and assess targets towards a sustainable society and circular economy.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

India and the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) held their inaugural Foreign Ministers meeting in Riyadh, where they adopted a Joint Action Plan for 2024-2028.

About

• This plan encompasses various collaborative activities in health, trade, agriculture, food security, transportation, energy, and culture.
• The plan allows for additional cooperative areas based on mutual agreement.
• EAM S. Jaishankar also held separate bilateral meetings with his counterparts from Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Kuwait and Bahrain on the margins of the India-GCC Ministerial meeting.

Gulf Region

• The Gulf Region typically refers to the countries surrounding the Persian Gulf in the Middle East.
• It includes nations like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
• This region is known for its vast oil reserves, which have significantly influenced global economics and politics.

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

• It is a political and economic alliance of six Middle Eastern countries—Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman.
• It was established in 1981.
• It is Headquartered at Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
• It aims to achieve unity among its members based on their common objectives and their similar political and cultural identities, which are rooted in Arab and Islamic cultures.
• Presidency of the council rotates annually.

Importance of Gulf Region for India

• India’s priorities include attracting investments to increase economic growth, addressing regional security concerns (including in the Arabian Sea and the Gulf), and enhancing its regional presence and influence.
• Energy Security: The Gulf countries are major suppliers of crude oil and natural gas to India.
• India is highly dependent on Gulf oil for its energy needs, making the region crucial for India’s energy security.
• Remittance: Remittances from Indian expatriates working in the Gulf contribute significantly to India’s economy.
• Remittance is the non-commercial transfer of money by an individual to his/her home country or family.
• Security Cooperation: The Gulf region is strategically important for India’s security interests, given its location and influence in the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean regions.

India’s Relations with GCC

• Strategic Partnership: GCC is a major trade and investment partner for India. While India has close economic and political ties with all countries, the strategic partnership exists with only Saudi Arabia, UAE, and Oman.
• Energy Security: The Gulf region fulfilled 55.3% of India’s total crude oil demand in 2022–23, compared to 63.9% in 2021–22. However, oil imports from Russia have been declining in 2023–24, and there are signs that India’s decreasing dependence on Gulf oil is already reversing.
• Trade and Investment: The GCC is India’s largest regional bloc trading partner. Trade with the GCC comprised 15.8 percent of India’s total trade in FY2022-23, compared to 11.6 percent of total trade with the European Union.
• The UAE has consistently been India’s principal trading partner within the Gulf and is India’s third-largest trading partner overall, with Saudi Arabia in fourth place.
• India also has a significant trade deficit with the GCC which is driven by India’s dependence on GCC countries for oil and gas imports.
• India’s regional geo-economic focus has driven it to engage with the I2U2 grouping and to join the India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC).
• The two sides signed an inter-governmental framework agreement on IMEC. However, both initiatives risk being delayed by the Hamas–Israel war.
• Defence Relations: India’s defense engagements with these countries are gaining significant momentum.
• The Indian Navy established bilateral exercises with the UAE in 2018, with Qatar in 2019, and with Bahrain and Saudi Arabia in 2021.
• The Indian Army held its first exercises with the UAE and Saudi Arabia in 2024.
• The UAE is becoming India’s key regional defence partner; the UAE and Oman are the only regional countries with which India holds army, air force and navy exercises.
• India and the UAE have started trilateral military cooperation with France, holding a maritime exercise in 2023 and an air-force exercise in 2024.

Challenges Ahead 

• The outbreak of the Hamas–Israel war and shipping attacks in the Red Sea directly impact India’s energy security and economic growth.
• Yet India remains reluctant to take an active role in the complex politics of the Middle East and is back to its long-standing balancing act between the Gulf, Iran and Israel. This could become more difficult if the war escalates further.
• The war has also impacted the I2U2 minilateral group, through the continued postponement of a senior-officials meeting since 2023.
• India has called for economic initiatives such as I2U2 and IMEC to progress despite the conflict.
• Other challenges include finalising the India–GCC Free Trade Agreement (FTA), which was initially delayed due to a change in the GCC’s chief trade negotiator.
• The key issue will be reaching an agreement that satisfies all GCC states.
• Additionally, India must manage diplomatic relations carefully following Islamophobic comments made by Indian officials in 2022.
• Any Islamophobic rhetoric from Indian nationals stands in contrast to the growing government-to-government display of religious tolerance between India and the Gulf.

Way Forward 

• Growing security challenges are sharpening the need for India to become a key ‘strategic partner’ of the Gulf states and to enlarge its regional presence and influence.
• Increased strategic convergence spanning political, economic and security interests has resulted in a new framework for India–Gulf relations, which, if successfully maintained, will enhance trust levels and enable cooperation to become more ambitious in scope.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Union Home Minister Amit Shah addressed the first Foundation Day program of the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) and launched key initiatives for prevention of cyber crime.

About

• During the event, four platforms of the I4C were launched;
• Cyber fraud mitigation center (CFMC);
• Samanvaya Platform, for cybercrime data repository, sharing, mapping, and analytics, as well as a coordination tool for law enforcement agencies.
• The cyber commandos programme: The government has planned to train and prepare 5,000 cyber commandos over the next five years to enhance cybersecurity.
• Suspect registry: It is an initiative to strengthen fraud risk management by creating a registry of identifiers based on the National Cybercrime Reporting Portal in collaboration with banks and financial intermediaries.

What is Cybercrime?

• Cyber crime is the use of digital technologies such as computers and the internet to commit criminal activities.
• These cases are financial fraud (credit card fraud, online transaction fraud), crime against women and children with regard to sexually explicit material, and deep fake content etc.
• According to the Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution, cybercrimes are within the purview of State subjects.
• According to the ‘Crime in India’ report released by the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), there has been a 24.4 percent increase in Cyber Crime Cases across India.

Reasons for increase in Cybercrime

• Rapid Digitalization: With a growing number of individuals and businesses relying on the Internet and digital technologies there are more opportunities for cybercriminals to exploit vulnerabilities.
• Large Internet User Base: India has 95 crore Internet users. With a large population using the internet, there are more potential targets for cybercriminals, making it a lucrative market for cyberattacks.
• Inadequate Cybersecurity Infrastructure: In India the cybersecurity infrastructure is still developing. Many organizations, especially smaller businesses, may not have robust cybersecurity measures in place, making them easy targets for cybercriminals.
• Insider Threats: Insider threats, where employees or individuals with access to sensitive information misuse it for malicious purposes, are a significant concern in India, particularly in the corporate sector.
• Payment Systems Vulnerability: With the rise of digital payments and online transactions, there is an increased risk of financial crimes such as phishing, credit card fraud, and online scams.
• In 2024, India saw UPI (Unified Payments Interface) transactions worth about Rs 20,64,000 crore which is 46 percent of the global digital transactions.
• Low digital literacy: Lower awareness among the general public and digital gaps amongst nations create an unsustainable environment in the cyber domain.

Effects of Cybercrime

• Financial Losses: Cybercrime leads to substantial financial losses for individuals and organizations through theft of funds, fraudulent activities, or the cost of restoring compromised systems.
• National Security Concerns: Cyberattacks with a geopolitical motive pose national security threats. The attacks target government agencies, critical infrastructure, or defense systems, compromising a nation’s security.
• Data Breaches: The unauthorized access and theft of sensitive data compromises the confidentiality of personal and financial information, causing reputational damage and potential legal consequences.
• Disruption of Services: Cyberattacks disrupt essential services and critical infrastructure, impacting businesses, governments, and individuals.
• Loss of Intellectual Property: Businesses suffer from the theft of intellectual property, trade secrets, and proprietary information which undermine competitiveness and innovation, leading to economic repercussions.

Government steps for Cybersecurity

• Information Technology Act, 2000: Section 43, 66, 70, and 74 of the IT Act, 2000 deal with hacking and cyber crimes.
• Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) issues alerts and advisories regarding latest cyber threats/vulnerabilities and countermeasures to protect computers and networks on a regular basis.
• National Cyber Coordination Centre (NCCC) has been set up to generate necessary situational awareness of existing and potential cyber security threats and enable timely information sharing for proactive, preventive and protective actions by individual entities.
• Cyber Swachhta Kendra (Botnet Cleaning and Malware Analysis Centre) has been launched for detection of malicious programs and provides free tools to remove the same.
• Bharat National Cyber Security Exercise 2023: Bharat NCX will help strategic leaders to better understand cyber threats, assess readiness, and develop skills for cyber crisis management and cooperation.

Conclusion

• The increasing use of technology is also causing many threats. That is why cybersecurity is no longer limited to the digital world but has also become an important aspect of national security.
• Most cyber crimes are trans-national in nature with extra-territorial jurisdiction. Therefore, ‘data localisation’ is required, so that enforcement agencies are able to get timely access to the data of suspected Indian citizens.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: In the 2024-25 Union Budget, the Finance Minister stated, “From 2026-27 onwards, we aim to reduce the fiscal deficit each year to ensure Union government debt declines as a percentage of GDP.”

• The speech also says that the Centre’s fiscal deficit would be reduced to 4.5% of GDP in 2025-26 from its budgeted level of 4.9% in 2024-25.

What is the fiscal deficit?

• Fiscal Deficit is defined as excess of total budget expenditure (revenue and capital) over total budget receipts (revenue and capital) excluding borrowings during a fiscal year.
• Fiscal Deficit = Total Expenditure – (Revenue Receipts + Non-Debt Creating Capital Receipts).

National Debt

• The fiscal deficit is different from the national debt.
• The national debt is the total amount of money that the government of a country owes its lenders at a particular point in time.
• It is usually the amount of debt that a government has accumulated over many years of running fiscal deficits and borrowing to bridge the deficits.

Implications of fiscal deficit

• Inflationary Pressure: When a country’s government runs a persistently high fiscal deficit, this can eventually lead to higher inflation as the government will be forced to use fresh money issued by the central bank to fund its fiscal deficit.
• Higher fiscal deficit causes higher debt which eventually leads to the higher ratio of interest payment to revenue receipts. Hence there will be lower shares for financing non-interest expenditures.
• Crowding Out effect: When the government borrows a large portion of available funds from financial markets to finance its deficit, it crowds out private investment with reduced access to credit for businesses and individuals.
• This can hinder economic growth and productivity.
• Reduced Fiscal Space: A high fiscal deficit limits the government’s ability to respond to economic shocks or crises.
• With limited fiscal space, the government may be unable to implement countercyclical fiscal policies such as increased spending or tax cuts to stimulate economic growth during downturns.
• Difficulty in borrowing: As a government’s finances worsen, demand for the government’s bonds begins to drop, forcing the government to offer to pay a higher interest rate to lenders.

Benefits of lower fiscal deficit

• A consistent reduction in the fiscal deficit will improve credit ratings by international rating agencies. Higher credit ratings make it cheaper for India to borrow in global markets, reducing the cost of external debt.
• When the fiscal deficit is lower, less money is diverted to debt servicing, leaving more funds for development projects like infrastructure, education, and healthcare.
• Lower deficits will improve the balance of payments in favor of India, by reducing the reliance on foreign borrowing. It will help in stabilizing the exchange rate and the overall current account.
• A lower fiscal deficit signals fiscal discipline and responsible government management of finances. This can enhance investor confidence, leading to increased foreign and domestic investment.

The reforms needed

• There is a need to follow the recommendations of the NK Singh committee, 2017 which proposed a draft Debt Management and Fiscal Responsibility Bill, 2017.
• Incentivizing Financial Savings: Promoting higher household financial savings through tax incentives on financial products, improving returns on long-term savings schemes, and enhancing financial literacy.
• Infrastructure Finance Reforms: Improving mechanisms for financing infrastructure projects by involving the private sector through public-private partnerships (PPP), infrastructure bonds, and development of finance institutions.

Concluding remarks

• The recent pronouncements talk of the debt-GDP ratio as the policy variable, however they do not specify what that target is for India and what the path would be to reach that target from the current levels of debt-GDP ratio.
• With the current lower levels of household financial savings, it is better for the central government to stick to 3% of GDP as a limit to fiscal deficit. Any relaxation of this rule will only lead to fiscal imprudence.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: US announced a “new partnership” with India to explore semiconductor supply chain opportunities.

About

• It will include a comprehensive assessment of India’s existing semiconductor ecosystem, regulatory framework, workforce and infrastructure needs.
• It will serve as the “basis for potential future joint initiatives” to strengthen and grow this critical sector.
• The US Department of State will partner with the India Semiconductor Mission, to explore opportunities to grow and diversify the global semiconductor ecosystem under the International Technology Security and Innovation (ITSI) Fund, created by the CHIPS Act of 2022.
• The Creating Helpful Incentives to Produce Semiconductors (CHIPS) and Science Act is intended to lure microchip manufacturing back to the US after decades of companies offshoring the technology.

What are Semiconductors?

• Semiconductors are materials with electrical properties that fall between those of conductors (like metals) and insulators (like rubber).
• They have a unique ability to conduct electricity under certain conditions while acting as insulators under others.
• They are sometimes referred to as integrated circuits (ICs) or microchips made from pure elements, typically silicon or germanium.
• In a process called doping, small amounts of impurities are added to these pure elements, causing large changes in the conductivity of the material.
• Applications: Semiconductors are used in a vast range of electronic devices.
• Transistors, which are fundamental components of modern electronic circuits, rely on semiconductor materials.
• They act as switches or amplifiers in everything from computers to cell phones.
• Semiconductors are also used in solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits.

India’s Semiconductor Industry

• In 2022, the Indian semiconductor market was valued at US$ 26.3 billion and is projected to expand at a CAGR of 26.3% to US$ 271.9 billion by 2032.
• Semiconductor devices include diodes, transistors and photovoltaic cells assembled or not assembled in modules or panels, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and mounted piezo-electric crystals.

Factors favouring India

• Skilled Workforce: India leads the world with record number of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) graduates, offering the much-needed skilled workforce required in semiconductor manufacturing, design, research, and development.
• Cost Advantage: India offers a substantial cost advantage for semiconductor manufacturing due to the lower labour cost, supply chain efficiency and emerging ecosystem.
• Global Supply Chain Diversification: India has become a preferred destination for back-end assembly and testing operations amidst this industry relocation, with potential for future front-end manufacturing.
• Policy support: The Indian government has promptly seized the opportunity following the global semiconductor supply chain glut after the pandemic and showed great intent through policy support to present India as an alternative to China in the global semi supply chain.

India’s Semiconductor Ecosystem

• Supply disruptions during the Covid-19 pandemic and the geopolitical tensions arising out of China’s aggressive moves in the Taiwan Strait and the South China Sea have brought urgency to India’s efforts to develop its own semiconductor ecosystem.
• The global chip industry is dominated by companies from a very small number of countries, and India is a late entrant into this high-tech and expensive race.
• India Semiconductor Mission: It functions as a dedicated division within the Digital India Corporation.
• Its main goal is to nurture a strong semiconductor and display ecosystem to position India as a prominent global player in electronics manufacturing and design.

Under ISM, there are several schemes in place:

• The government offers incentives for manufacturing setup in India:
• Under the Semiconductor Fab Scheme, fiscal support of 50% of the project cost on an equal footing for all technology nodes.
• Under the Display Fab Scheme, fiscal support of 50% of the project cost on an equal footing basis.
• Under the Compound Semiconductor Scheme, fiscal support of 50% of the capital expenditure on an equal footing basis, including support for discrete semiconductor fabs.
• In February 2024, the government approved the establishment of three semiconductor plants, two in Gujarat and one in Assam.

Conclusion

• Taiwan produces more than 60 percent of the world’s supply of semiconductors and more than 90 percent of the most advanced chips.
• Given the critical importance of semiconductor chips in almost everything, from missiles to mobile phones and cars to computers, the partnerships with the US have geo-strategic and geo-economic importance.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: India and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) for civil nuclear cooperation.

About

• During the 2015 visit of Prime Minister Narendra Modi to the UAE, both countries had agreed to cooperate in “peaceful use of nuclear energy”, including in areas of “safety, health, agriculture, and science and technology.”
• The agreement is part of the UAE’s policy of expanding investments into the nuclear energy sector.
• LNG Supply: Apart from the nuclear cooperation-related MoU, the two sides signed an MoU for long-term LNG supply between Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) and Indian Oil Corporation Limited.

India’s Civil Nuclear Cooperation

• Civil nuclear cooperation involves collaboration between countries or organizations to develop and use nuclear technology for peaceful purposes.
• It can encompass a variety of activities, including: Energy Production, Regulatory and Safety Standards, Nuclear Fuel Supply, and Non-Proliferation Efforts.
• India’s civil nuclear program is aimed at harnessing nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, primarily electricity generation, and other applications.
• India has Nuclear cooperation with France, Russia, U.S.A and Japan.

Related Agreements

• Indo-U.S. Nuclear Deal (2005): The deal was instrumental in improving India’s access to global nuclear markets.
• Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement with the U.S. (2008): It allowed India access to civilian nuclear technology and fuel from the international market.
• This agreement required India to separate its civilian and military nuclear facilities, with the civilian facilities subject to safeguards by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

Key Reactors and Projects:

• Major nuclear power plants in India include those located in Tarapur, Kudankulam, and Rajasthan.
• These facilities play a significant role in India’s nuclear energy production.
• Fast Breeder Reactors: India is developing advanced nuclear reactors, such as Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs), which use plutonium to generate more fuel than they consume.
• Thorium-Based Reactors: India has a long-term vision of utilizing its abundant thorium resources in nuclear reactors.
• The country is working on thorium-based reactors, including the Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR), as part of its three-stage nuclear program.

Brief overview of the UAE and India relations

• Political: India and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) established diplomatic relations in 1972.
• Multilateral Cooperation: India and the UAE are currently part of several plurilateral platforms such as I2U2 (India-Israel-UAE-USA) and UFI (UAE-France-India) Trilateral, etc. UAE was also invited as a Guest Country to the G-20 Summit
• Economic & Commercial: India UAE trade, valued at US$ 180 million per annum in the 1970s, is today US$ 84.84 billion making UAE, India’s third largest trading partner for the year 2021-22 after China and US.
• Moreover, UAE is the second largest export destination of India (after the US) with an amount of nearly US$ 31.61 billion for the year 2022-23.
• The Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2022 as a major step in deepening trade relations.
• Defence cooperation: It is steered through a Joint Defence Cooperation Committee (JDCC) at the Ministry level, with the signing of Agreement on Defence Cooperation in 2003, which came into effect in 2004.
• Space Cooperation: Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and the UAE Space Agency signed an MoU regarding cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes in 2016.
• Indian Community: Indian expatriate community of approximately 3.5 million is the largest ethnic community in UAE constituting roughly about 35 percent of the country’s population.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The recent rape and murder of a doctor at R G Kar Medical College and Hospital in West Bengal have once again spotlighted the issue of sexual violence in India.

• In response, the West Bengal government introduced the Aparajita Woman and Child Bill, 2024, proposing the mandatory death penalty for rape resulting in death or a permanent vegetative state.
• This move raises critical debates around the effectiveness of harsher punishments in deterring sexual violence and the broader challenges within India’s criminal justice system.

Background

• Over 90% of rape cases in India involve perpetrators known to the victims, underscoring the societal nature of this crime, as opposed to it being the isolated acts of deviant individuals.
• High-profile cases like the 2012 Delhi gang rape have led to significant public outrage, often resulting in demands for harsher punishments.
• However, despite these measures, the problem persists, highlighting the need for a more comprehensive approach to addressing sexual violence.

Legal and Constitutional Aspects

• The Indian judicial system has addressed the question of the death penalty in cases of sexual violence through landmark judgments.
• In Mithu v State of Punjab (1983), the Supreme Court declared the mandatory death penalty unconstitutional, as it violated the principle of judicial discretion in sentencing.
• Additionally, state-level amendments to central laws, such as the Indian Penal Code (IPC), require Presidential approval, complicating the implementation of region-specific legislation like the Aparajita Bill.
• India also struggles with low conviction rates in rape cases, hovering under 30%.
• The causes of this include delayed investigations, inadequate prosecutorial capacities, and institutional challenges within the judiciary. These problems impede the delivery of swift and fair justice.

Challenges in Addressing Sexual Violence

• India faces significant challenges in effectively addressing sexual violence:
• Ineffective Investigations:
• Police investigations in sexual violence cases are often delayed, leading to loss of crucial evidence and weakening the case.
• Prosecutorial Inefficiency:
• A lack of skilled prosecutors and the inability to handle sensitive cases results in poor legal representation for the victim.
• Judicial Delays:
• The institutional capacity of courts is insufficient to handle the volume of cases, leading to delays in trials.
• Witness Protection:
• Despite legal frameworks, there is a lack of effective witness protection, discouraging victims and witnesses from participating in trials.
• These issues undermine the criminal justice system’s ability to ensure certainty of punishment, which is critical for deterring crime.

Societal Perspectives and Misconceptions

• There is a misconception that harsher punishments, such as the death penalty, are sufficient to prevent sexual violence. However, research and international practices emphasize that the certainty of punishment is a more effective deterrent than its severity.
• Additionally, there is often selective outrage over stranger rapes, particularly those involving visible violence, while other forms of sexual violence, especially those within domestic or known settings, receive less attention.

Victim-Centric Approach

• Efforts to address sexual violence must center on the needs and well-being of survivors. There are critical gaps in the criminal justice process:
• Pre-trial and Trial Challenges:
• Survivors often face multiple challenges during the pre-trial and trial stages, including hostile questioning, public scrutiny, and prolonged court cases.
• Medical Examinations:
• Humane treatment during medical examinations is essential to avoid re-traumatizing survivors.
• Justice Beyond Punishment:
• Survivors often seek various forms of justice, such as recognition, support, and rehabilitation, which cannot be achieved solely through harsher punishments.
• The Witness Protection Scheme, though available in theory, lacks adequate implementation and is a crucial aspect of a victim-centric approach to ensure their safety and cooperation in legal proceedings.

International Best Practices

• Globally, the emphasis is on the certainty of punishment rather than its severity as a deterrent for sexual violence.
• Countries that have successfully reduced crime rates focus on strengthening criminal justice institutions, ensuring swift investigations, and providing timely prosecutions.
• In addition, addressing the root causes of sexual violence—such as gender inequality, poverty, and lack of education—through social reforms is key to long-term solutions.

Way Forward

• Broader Social Reforms:
• Addressing the root causes of sexual violence requires significant social reform, including education on gender equality, societal awareness, and better economic opportunities for marginalized communities.
• Strengthening Criminal Justice Institutions:
• Enhancing the capacity of investigative agencies, improving prosecutorial efficiency, and reducing judicial delays are essential to delivering timely and effective justice.
• Increased investment in witness protection schemes and victim support systems is also crucial.
• Focus on Victim Support and Rehabilitation:
• Rather than focusing solely on punitive measures, reforms should prioritize the needs of survivors, ensuring their rehabilitation and reintegration into society.
• Medical, legal, and psychological support should be made accessible to all survivors of sexual violence.

Conclusion

• While there is public demand for stricter punishments, including the death penalty, the focus must shift towards certainty of justice, institutional reforms, and victim-centered approaches.

Sexual violence is not just a criminal issue but a deeply rooted societal problem that requires multi-faceted solutions—spanning legal, social, and cultural domains.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Recently Chief Justice D Y Chandrachud pitches for implementing All India Judicial Services (AIJS) for quick filling of vacancies for expeditious disposal of cases and reducing pendency.

All-India Judicial Service (AIJS)

• Article 312 of the Constitution, as amended by the 42nd Amendment, provides for the creation of an AIJS.
• It also requires a resolution adopted by the Council of States with a two-thirds majority and a parliamentary law.
• The AIJS is a reform push to centralise the recruitment of judges at the level of additional district judges and district judges for all states.
• In the same way that the Union Public Service Commission conducts a central recruitment process and assigns successful candidates to cadres, judges of the lower judiciary are proposed to be recruited centrally and assigned to states.

Arguments favouring AIJS

• Fresh talent: A properly framed All India Judicial Service is important to strengthen the overall justice delivery system.
• A national service for judges not inferior to the post of district judges, with a superannuation age of 60, will be an attractive proposition for young lawyers to apply for it.
• This will give an opportunity for induction of suitably qualified fresh legal talent selected through an all-India merit selection system
• Representation to deprived sections: It will also address the issue of social inclusion by enabling suitable representation to marginalized and deprived sections of society.
• It may also facilitate inclusion of competent persons from marginalized sections and women in the judiciary.
• Reducing the pendency of the cases: Data from earlier this year said the backlog in the lower judiciary comprising the district and subordinate courts stood at 3.8 crore cases, thus accounting for the bulk of the more than 4.4 crore cases pending across the Indian judiciary.
• Judge-to-population ratio: In India there are about 19 judges per 10 lakh population even though the Law Commission had recommended that it should be at least 50 per 10 lakh people.
• All this points to an urgent need to ensure swift filling up of vacancies and ramping up of recruitment to the lower judiciary, for which the Centre has long proposed the creation of the AIJS.

Challenges

• Concern of centralisation: This Constitution recognises that rules governing the subordinate judiciary in the States will have to be superseded by a central law for this proposal to achieve fruition.
• It is unlikely that all States will agree to one more subject from their domain being consumed by centralisation.
• Key concerns were the dilution of the federal structure and that the proposal does not address structural issues plaguing the lower judiciary.
• Lack of consensus: There is no consensus on the proposal. Only two High Courts agreed to the idea, while 13 were against it.
• There is divergence of views on eligibility, age, selection criteria, qualification and reservation.
• Issue of language: Since cases in lower courts are argued in local languages, there have been apprehensions about how a person from north India can hold hearings in a southern state.
• Advantages of current system: The current system of recruitment of district judges through the respective High Courts and other subordinate judicial officers through public service commissions is more conducive to ensuring diversity, as there is scope for both reservation and a clear understanding of local practices and conditions.
• Unattractive career option: After enrolling, lawyers typically consider judicial service based on practical experience rather than academic brilliance.
• According to critics, toppers, especially from the few elite law schools, are unlikely to sit for a national judicial service recruitment examination.
• In comparison, options such as litigation, joining law firms and going into the corporate sector may appear more beneficial.
• Further, given that the number of district judges elevated to the High Courts is much lower than those from the Bar, the lack of certainty on career progression may also render a national judicial service unattractive.
• Different from civil services: Unlike the civil service, judges are not assisted by an experienced lower bureaucracy in decision-making, and they are required to be well-versed in the issues involved in judicial functioning.

Way ahead

• The AIJS has been pitched as a solution to judicial vacancies, lack of representation for the marginalized on the bench and the failure to attract the best candidate.
• AIJS needs to be designed in a way to get rid of its shortcomings and it is able to be a powerful technique for the vacancy in the judiciary.
• Adequate judges may be made to be handiest if they’re recruited in huge energy through AIJS similar to IAS, IPS, IFS, and different civil offerings.