General Studies Paper -2

Context: India and Brazil concluded the first ‘2+2’ defence and foreign ministerial dialogue.

About

• Discussions spanned defence, space, energy, critical minerals, tech, counter-terrorism and regional, multilateral & other issues of mutual interest.
• It was co-chaired by an additional secretary in the external affairs ministry and joint secretary in the defence ministry.

What are 2+2 meetings?

• The 2+2 meetings signify the participation of two high-level representatives, Ministers holding Foreign and Defence portfolios, from each of the two countries who aim to enhance the scope of dialogue between them.
• Having such a mechanism enables the partners to better understand and appreciate each other’s strategic concerns and sensitivities taking into account political factors on both sides, in order to build a stronger, more integrated strategic relationship.
• India has held 2+2 meetings with ministers from the USA, Australia, Japan, the United Kingdom and Russia.

Brief on India- Brazil Relations

• Diplomatic Relations:Relations were established in 1948, and the two countries have been Strategic Partners since 2006.
• Both sides also have several Joint Working Groups to take forward sectoral cooperation.
• Trade Relations:In 2022, the bilateral trade expanded by 32% to US$15.2 billion (India’s exports US$8.8 billion & Imports – US$6.4 billion).
• India and Brazil have established Trade Monitoring Mechanism as an institutional mechanism to monitor and identify bottlenecks in bilateral trade and take appropriate measures to address them.
• Defence & Security Cooperation:India and Brazil signed an agreement in 2003 for cooperation in defence. Meetings of Joint Defence Committee (JDC) are held as an institutionalized mechanism for defence cooperation.
• Security Cooperation:India and Brazil established a Strategic Dialogue mechanism in 2006 to cover regional and global issues of mutual concern.
• The two countries have an Extradition Treaty, Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty in Criminal Matters and an Agreement of Transfer of Sentenced Persons in place.
• Space Cooperation: India and Brazil signed a framework agreement for peaceful use of outer space in 2004 as well an Agreement for inter-institutional cooperation between the space agencies.
• Both countries have been collaborating in Data sharing and satellite tracking of Indian satellites.
• Multifora Relations:India and Brazil share a very close and multifaceted relationship both at bilateral level as well as in plurilateral fora such as BRICS, BASIC, G-20, G-4, IBSA, International Solar Alliance, as well as in the larger multilateral bodies such as the UN, WTO, UNESCO, and WIPO.

Challenges in the Relations

• Geopolitical Competition:Both India and Brazil are emerging powers with aspirations for greater global influence. This can sometimes lead to competition, particularly in international forums like the UN, where both countries seek greater representation and influence.
• Trade Barriers:Trade between India and Brazil has not reached its full potential, partly due to various trade barriers and protectionist measures in both countries. These barriers hinder the growth of bilateral trade and investment.
• Infrastructure and Connectivity: Improving infrastructure and connectivity between the two countries remains a challenge.
• Better air and sea connectivity, as well as improved transportation links, are essential for boosting trade and people-to-people contacts.

Way Ahead

• Overcoming the challenges requires sustained diplomatic efforts, enhanced economic cooperation, and a commitment to finding common ground on global issues.
• Despite the obstacles, the potential benefits of a stronger India-Brazil partnership make overcoming these challenges a worthwhile endeavor.

General Studies Paper -3 

Context: It is observed that the gender gap in access to mobile phones has an impact on financial inclusion.

About Financial Inclusion

• Financial inclusion means that individuals and businesses have access to useful and affordable financial products and services that meet their needs.
• The Reserve Bank of India, releasing the National Strategy for Financial Inclusion (2019-2024), defined ‘financial inclusion’ as “the process of ensuring access to financial services and timely and adequate credit where needed by vulnerable groups such as weaker sections and low-income groups at an affordable cost.
• Financial inclusion has been identified as an enabler for 7 of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.  

Importance Financial Inclusion for Women 

• Financial inclusion is critical to achieving the economic empowerment of women—one of the targets under the fifth Sustainable Development Goal on gender equality.
• Access to financial services gives opportunities for generating income, accumulating assets, and participating more fully in economic activities, thereby promoting social and economic empowerment.
• Financial inclusion has a positive impact on women’s control over household resources by increasing their savings.
• It will result in direct improvements in outcomes of health, education, and employment.
• In turn, such progress helps achieve collective goals of eradicating poverty, promoting inclusive growth, and reducing inequality
• Additionally, women play a crucial role in promoting entrepreneurship by channeling their savings into starting or expanding small businesses.
• The adoption of digital payments across the world was boosted by COVID-19 and digital payments, in turn, have widened financial inclusion
• The percentage of women who have a bank or savings account that they themselves use has increased from 53 percent in NFHS-4 (2015-16) to 79 percent in NFHS-5.

Challenges 

• Although the country’s programmes promoting financial inclusion have increased the percentage of women having access to a bank account, wide gaps remain in account use, and access to savings and credit.
• Women continue to face barriers to accessing financial services for various reasons: they are more likely to lack proof of identity or a mobile phone, and live far from a bank branch.
• The barriers that women face are gendered: restrictive social norms, mobility constraints, lack of identification, limited financial literacy, insufficient assets for collateral, and low levels of digital literacy
• COVID-19 and the gendered digital divide : the pandemic increased the need for contactless financial products and services, accelerating the shift to digital finance in many economies.
• However, the tools and skills required to use digital financial products and services are not available to all, which has brought attention to the digital divide that affects women in particular.

Initiatives

• Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) :It aims to promote financial inclusion in every household in the country.
• PMJDY offers an overdraft facility of INR 10,000 to the woman of the household for operating the savings account satisfactorily, without asking for security or how she will spend the money.
• Direct Benefits Transfer (DBT) : A key policy driver in women’s uptake and use of financial services in India has been the Direct Benefits Transfer (DBT) initiative for women account holders.
• The DBT also brings benefits to the government: it eliminates intermediaries, brings in transparency, and lowers the costs of distributing social security
• DBT covers wages for the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, LPG subsidy, and free food grains under the Public Distribution System.
• The Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana targets the financial inclusion of women by providing collateral-free loans up to INR 1 million for small and micro enterprises.
• The Unified Payments Interface (UPI)system has also revolutionised digital payments, making it easier for women to engage in financial transactions and investments.

Suggestions for Women’s Financial Inclusion

• Appoint more women Business Correspondents: They are retail agents that provide doorstep banking services in rural areas.
• Introduced in 2006, BCs have emerged as the predominant delivery model in the country for financial services
• Promote women’s access to, and literacy in digital tools
• Deepen convergence with self-help groups. In India, self-help groups (SHGs) have historically played an important role in the financial inclusion of women through the SHG-Bank Linkage Programme.
• SHGs can also be tapped to run financial literacy centres for women.
• Collect gender-disaggregated data and develop strategies to form women-centric approaches.
• Promote digital credit for medium and small businesses.

Conclusion

• Financial inclusion is essential for economic growth and sustainable development; for women, it is a pathway to economic and social empowerment.
• The existing challenges must be addressed through a women-centric approach to financial inclusion that prioritises equal access for women to the full range of financial services available to men.
• This will allow them the same opportunities as men to participate fully in economic activity.
• Ensuring the optimal use of women’s savings in India requires a focus on efficient mobilisation and allocation, leveraging financial markets and institutions.
• Government policies with a gender-sensitive approach are pivotal in encouraging women’s participation in productive investments.
• India’s digital infrastructure is crucial in enabling women’s savings to be channelled into productive capital and investments.

General Studies Paper -3 

Context: The Gender Inequality Index 2022 has been released by UNDP in their Human Development Report 2023/2024.

About the Index 

• GII is a composite metric of gender inequality using three dimensions:
• reproductive health, empowerment and the labour market.
• A low GII value indicates low inequality between women and men, and vice-versa.

Findings 

• Denmark topped the index followed by Norway, Switzerland and Sweden.
• India has registered a significant jump of 14 ranks in Gender Inequality Index 2022.
• It ranked 108 out of 193 countries with a score of 0.437 in GII 2022.
• In 2022, India saw improvements across all HDI indicators — life expectancy, education, and gross national income (GNI) per capita and life expectancy rose from 67.2 to 67.7 years, expected years of schooling reached 12.6, mean years of schooling increased to 6.57 and GNI per capita saw an increase from USD 6,542 to USD 6,951.

India’s Progressive Improvement

• Over the last 10 years, India’s rank in GII has become consistently better, indicating progressive improvement in achieving gender equality in the country.
• India’s adolescent birth rate in 2022 was 16.3 (births per 1,000 women ages 15-19), an improvement from 17.1 in 2021.
• However, the country still has one of the largest gender gaps in its labour force participation rate — a 47.8% difference between women (28.3 %) and men (76.1 %).

Major Initiatives Helping India in Improvement

• Code on Social Security, 2020:Provisions for women’s social security across various aspects.
• Mission Shakti: Self-help mission for empowering women through promotion of Women Self Help Groups (WSHGs) to take up various socio-economic activities.
• Others: Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP), Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana, Ujjwala Yojana, reservations and legislative policies etc.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: NITI Aayog B.V.R. Subrahmanyam recently claimed that less than 5% of Indians now live below the poverty line. He made the claim based on the findings of the Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES), 2022-23. 

About

• The Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) claimed that India’s rural poverty level had declined to2% in 2022-23 from 25.7% in 2011-12, while urban poverty slipped to 4.6% from 13.7% over the same period.
• The HCES is usually conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO) every 5 years. It is designed to collect information on the consumption of goods and services by households.
• At a national level, the report reckoned that the poverty rate in India could now be in the range of 4% to 5%, with a caveat that these numbers could undergo minor revisions once the Census to count the population that was due in 2021, is completed and the rural-urban population share is published.
• Other Estimates of Poverty in India
• ‘Multidimensional Poverty in India since 2005-06: A Discussion Paper’: NITI Ayog:
• Multidimensional poverty in India declined from 29.17% in 2013-14 to 11.28% in 2022-23.
• As many as 82 crore people moved out of multidimensional poverty in nine years to 2022-23, with Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh registering the largest decline.

Multidimensional Poverty Index 2023:

• The MPI 2023 estimates show a near-halving of India’s national MPI value and a decline from 24.85% to 14.96% between 2015-16 and 2019-21.
• This reduction of 9.89 percentage points implies that about 5 million people have exited poverty between 2015-16 and 2019-21.
• Besides, the intensity of poverty, which measures the average deprivation among the people living in multidimensional poverty, reduced from 47.14% to 44.39%.
• Poverty in India
• Poverty entails more than the lack of income and productive resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods. Its manifestations include hunger and malnutrition, limited access to education and other basic services, social discrimination and exclusion as well as the lack of participation in decision-making.
• Poverty in India remains a complex challenge despite significant reductions in recent decades.

Current Issues

• Debates on Definition and Measurement: Different poverty lines (income levels considered poor) and data sources lead to varying estimates.
• The World Bank, using the $2.15 per day benchmark(PPP – Purchasing Power Parity), estimates an 9% poverty rate for India.
• The Indian government claims a lower national poverty, with figures below 5%of the population below the poverty line .
• Government Data: The Indian government uses its own poverty indicators, which tends to show lower poverty rates compared to international benchmarks.
• Uneven Progress:Poverty reduction has been faster in rural areas compared to urban areas.

Causes of Poverty

• Limited Livelihood Opportunities:Lack of access to good jobs, especially in rural areas, keeps people trapped in poverty.
• Social Inequality: Caste discrimination, gender bias, and lack of access to education disproportionately affect marginalized communities.
• Low Productivity in Agriculture:The level of productivity in agriculture is low due to subdivided and fragmented holdings, lack of capital, use of traditional methods of cultivation, illiteracy etc.
• Inequality in the Distribution of Income and Assets:The poor mainly consists of unskilled labor, which typically does not command a high enough level of wage income.
• The benefits of the growth have been concentrated and have not “trickled down” sufficiently to ensure improved consumption among the lower income groups.
• Lack of Access to Social Services:The lack of access to social services such as health and education compound the problems arising from inequality in the ownership of physical and human assets
• Lack of access to Institutional Credit:The banks and other financial institutions are biased in the provision of loans to the poor for the fear of default in the repayment of loans.
• Lack of Productive Employment :  The magnitude of poverty is directly linked to the unemployment situation. The present employment conditions don’t permit a reasonable level of living causing poverty.
• Caste system: Caste system in India has always been responsible for rural poverty. The subordination of the low caste people by the high caste people  caused the poverty of the former
• Social customs:The rural people generally spend a large percentage of annual earnings on social ceremonies like marriage, death feast etc. and borrow largely to meet these requirements. As a result, they remain in debt and poverty.
• Vicious Circle of Poverty: Low level of saving reduces the scope for investment; low level of investment yields low income and thus the circle of poverty goes on indefinitely.

Poverty Line Estimation in India

• Tendulkar committee (2009): Poverty line in the Suresh Tendulkar methodology was expenditure of ₹33 a day in urban areas and ₹27 a day in rural areas. 
• Thus, India’s poors as percentage of total population in2011-12 as per the Tendulkar committee was 9.
• Rangarajan committee(2014):In the Rangarajan methodology, it was ₹47 a day in urban areas and ₹30 a day in rural areas.
• Thus, India’s poor population as percentage of Indian population in 2011-12 was 5,as per Rangarajan committee.
• Current poverty line calculation by NITI Aayog:A new approach has evolved by the NITI Aayog to incorporate multiple dimensions and non-income factors in the form of  Multidimensional Poverty Index, based on National Family Health Surveys(NFHS) results.
• At the core of the MPI is the Alkire-Foster (AF) methodology, a globally accepted general framework for measuring multidimensional poverty, which captures overlapping deprivations in health, education, and living standards.
• International Poverty Line: The World Bank defines a person as extremely poor if she is living on less than $2.15 per day, which is adjusted for inflation as well as price differences between countries.

Suggestions/Measures

• Address interlinkages: Inequalities of income, education, and opportunity are all interconnected and must be addressed together.
• Reducing inequalities of opportunity and of incomes among individuals, populations, and regions can foster social cohesion and boost general well-being.
• Jobs and employment are the surest way to reduce poverty and inequality.
• Poverty eradication must be mainstreamed into the national policies and actions in accordance with the internationally agreed development goals forming part of the broad United Nations Development Agenda.
• Education and health:It is essential that the government should provide education and health services free of cost for the deserving citizens and those from the socially oppressed classes.
• Government Initiatives to Reduce Poverty in India 
• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Work (MGNREGA):It provides wage employment while also focusing on strengthening natural resource management through works that address causes of chronic poverty.
• Flagship programmes like the Poshan Abhiyanand Anaemia Mukt Bharat have contributed to reduced deprivations in health.
• Initiatives such as Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) and Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) have improved sanitation across the country.
• The provision of subsidized cooking fuel through the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY)has positively transformed lives in rural areas.
• Initiatives like Saubhagya, Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY), Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY), and Samagra Shiksha have also played a major role in significantly reducing multidimensional poverty in the country.

Way Ahead

• India has made progress in eliminating extreme poverty but still there is a long way to go ahead, as seen in the World Bank’s recent claim that74% Indians still can’t afford a nutritious diet.
• Further, to get the real picture of poverty in India revision of the poverty line as per changing socio-economic realities is needed.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Union Cabinet recently gave its approval for the signing of Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of India and the Royal Government of Bhutan.

About

• The MoU signed between the two countries is on General Supply of Petroleum, Oil, Lubricants (POL) and related products from India to Bhutan.
• It aims to benefit India and its citizens with improved economic and commercial linkages with Bhutan irrespective of any gender, class or income bias, particularly in the area of hydrocarbon sector.

Expected Benefits of MoU

• The Memorandum of Understanding will promote bilateral trade in the hydrocarbon sector and will ensure secured and long term supply of petroleum products to Bhutan.
• Since, exports play a crucial role in realizing Aatmanirbhar Bharat. The MoU will give thrust towards self-reliant India. 
• The MoU will be a strategic fit as Energy Bridge in India’s Neighborhood First Policy.

India-Bhutan Relations: An Overview

• Diplomatic relations between India and Bhutan were established in 1968with the establishment of a special office of India in Thimphu.
• Before this our relations with Bhutan were looked after by our Political Officer in Sikkim. 
• The basic framework of India- Bhutan bilateral relations was the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation signed in 1949between the two countries, which was revised in February 2007.
• The India-Bhutan Friendship Treaty not only reflects the contemporary nature of our relationship but also lays the foundation for their future developmentin the 21st century.

Major Areas of Cooperation

Hydropower Cooperation

• Hydropower projects in Bhutan are an example of win-win cooperation,providing a reliable source of inexpensive and clean electricity to India, generating export revenue for Bhutan and cementing our economic integration.
• The ongoing cooperation between India and Bhutan in the Hydropower sector is covered under the 2006 Agreement on Cooperation in Hydropower and the Protocol to the 2006 agreement signed in March, 2009.
• So far, the Government of India has constructed three Hydroelectric Projects (HEPs) in Bhutan totaling 1416 MW (336 MW Chukha HEP, 60 MW Kurichhu HEP and 1020 MW Tala HEP), which are operational and exporting surplus power to India.
• About three-fourth of the power generated is exported and the rest is used for domestic consumption.

Bilateral Trade

• The India-Bhutan Agreement on Trade, Commerce and Transit – which was first signed in 1972 and revised most recently for the fifth time in 2016 – establishes a free trade regime between the two countries.
• India is Bhutan’s largest trading partner. Since 2014, India’s merchandise trade with Bhutan has almost tripled from USD 484 million in 2014-15 to USD 1422 million in 2021-22, accounting for about 80% of Bhutan’s overall trade, with the balance of trade in India’s favour.
• In 2021-22, India’s bilateral trade with Bhutan was USD 1422 million, of which India’s exports to Bhutan amounted to USD 877 million and India’s imports from Bhutan were USD 545 million.

Border Management

• There is a Secretary-level mechanismon border management and security related matters. There is also a Border District Coordination Meeting Mechanism between the bordering States and the Royal Government of Bhutan to facilitate coordination on border management and other related matters.

Water Resource Management

• There is a Joint Group of Experts (JGE) on flood management between India and Bhutan to discuss/ assess the probable causes and effects of the recurring floods and erosion in the southern foothills of Bhutan and adjoining plains in India and to recommend appropriate measures to both Governments.

Educational and Cultural Cooperation

• A large number of college going Bhutanese students are studying in India. It is estimated that approximately 4000 Bhutanese are studying in Under Graduate courses in Indian Universities on a self-financing basis.

ITEC Training Programme Scheme

• Every year GoI provides 300 training slots under ITEC programme and a further 60 slots under TCS Colombo Plan in various fields to Bhutanese for upgrading their administrative and technical skills.

Challenges

• China’s Growing Influence:China’s increasing presence near the disputed India-Bhutan-China border and its growing economic ties with Bhutan raise concerns for India’s strategic interests.
• Delay in Projects:Delays and disagreements regarding revenue sharing from India-Bhutan hydropower projects can create tension.
• Trade Dependence:Bhutan’s heavy reliance on India for trade makes it vulnerable to economic fluctuations in India.
• Hydropower Projects and Environmental Risks:Bhutan has concerns about environmental and social impacts from hydropower projects.
• Motor Vehicle Agreement:India’s plans for a Motor Vehicle Agreement within the Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal grouping have faced delays.
• Power Purchasing Policy:India’s sudden change in its power purchasing policy, rigid rates, and refusal to allow Bhutan to join the national power grid and trade with third countries like Bangladesh has strained relations.

Measures Needed

Strengthening Economic Cooperation: India can invest in infrastructure development, tourism, and other sectors to diversify Bhutan’s economy and reduce its dependence.

• Enhanced Connectivity:Improved road, rail, and air links will  boost trade, tourism, and people-to-people exchanges.
• Cultural and Educational Exchange: Programs fostering cultural understanding and educational opportunities  can strengthen the bond between the two nations.
• Strategic Dialogue:Regular high-level talks  on security and border issues can address concerns and maintain transparency.
• Addressing Bhutan’s Concerns:India must address Bhutan’s anxieties regarding  China’s influence through sensitive diplomacy and economic cooperation.
• Multilateral Cooperation: Collaboration on regional projects  like hydropower and infrastructure development can be pursued  through organizations like BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical Cooperation).

Way Forward

• Maintaining a strong and mutually beneficial relationship with Bhutanis crucial for India’s strategic interests in the region.
• By addressing challenges and implementing the measures required, India and Bhutan can ensure a prosperous and secure future for both nations.

General Studies Paper -2

Context:

• Global child deaths reached a historic low in 2022,according to the latest estimates by the United Nations Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation. 

About

• The report noted the annual number of global under-five deaths in 2022 declined by more than half from the 2000 estimate — from 9.9 million to 4.9 million.
• However, the numbers are still bad. Globally,
• neonatal deaths, or the death of a baby within 28 days of birth, happened every 14 seconds;
• a child aged under five died every six seconds and
• an adolescent (ages 10 to 19)died every 35 seconds in 2022, the report found.

Major Highlights of the Report

• Decline in child deaths: The report noted a62 per cent decline in child deaths from the 1990 estimates.
• However, it warned that “these averages mask persistent and entrenched inequities among vulnerable populations of children.”
• Neonatal deaths:While the larger trend shows a decline, the trend of under-five deaths has increased in the neonatal period from 41 per cent in 2000 to 47 per cent in 2022.
• The slower decline in neonatal deaths is due to factors like population change and differences in the cause-of-death structure by age.
• Mortality among 1–59-month-olds is generally more responsive to basic public health interventions, while neonatal mortality relates more to complications around the time of birth.
• Sub-saharan Africa:Sub-Saharan Africa, where annual neonatal deaths have stagnated at about 1 million, bears the greatest burden of under-five deaths in the world.
• The mortality rate for children aged 28 days was 46 deaths per 1,000children in the region, more than two times higher than the global average of 20 deaths per 1,000 children aged 28 days.
• Leading causes:Prematurity, pneumonia, trauma, malaria and diarrhoea are among the leading causes of death for newborns and children, all preventable causes.
• These illnesses could have been prevented with vaccinations, availability of skilled health personnel at birth, support for early and continued breastfeeding.
• Survival factors:The child’s survival largely depends on the place of birth; whether the child belongs to a low-income or high-income country, and also on the inequity within countries.
• On average, children living in rural areas are at a higher risk of death before age 5 compared to their urban counterparts.
• Predictions: The report estimates that 35 million children under the age of 5 will lose their life before 2030 and sub-Saharan Africa will bear most of the death toll.
• It further warned that under current trends, 59 countries will miss the SDG under-five mortality target and 64 countries will miss the neonatal mortality target.

Child Mortality in India: Status and Trends

• As per the Sample Registration System (SRS) Statistical Report 2020 released on 22nd September 2022by Registrar General of India (RGI), the country has been witnessing a progressive reduction in IMR, U5MR and NMR since 2014 towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) targets by 2030.
• Under 5 Mortality Rate (U5MR) for the country has shown a significant decline of 3 points from 2019 (32 per 1000 live births in 2020 against 35 per 1000 live births in 2019).

• • It varies from 36 in rural areas to 21 in urban areas and U5MR for females is higher (33) than male (31).

• Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)has also registered a 2-point decline to 28 per 1000 live births in 2020 from 30 per 1000 live births in 2019 (Annual Decline Rate: 6.7%).
• The Rural-Urban difference has narrowed to 12 points (Urban 19, Rural-31).
• Neonatal Mortality Ratehas also declined by 2 points from 22 per 1000 live births in 2019 to 20 per 1000 live births in 2020 (Annual Decline Rate: 9.1%).

• • It ranges from 12 in urban areas to 23 in rural areas.

Major Causes of Child Mortality in India

• Preterm Birth Complications:Low birth weight, respiratory problems due to underdeveloped lungs.
• Birth Asphyxia:Lack of oxygen during delivery, leading to brain damage or death.
• Neonatal Infections:Sepsis, pneumonia can overwhelm a newborn’s weak immune system.
• Pneumonia:The leading cause, often linked to malnutrition and air pollution.
• Diarrhoea:Dehydration caused by infectious diseases like rotavirus.
• Malnutrition:Stunting and wasting weaken a child’s immune system and increase vulnerability to infections.

Measures to Reduce Child Mortality

Improving Maternal Health

• Prenatal Care:Regular checkups, proper nutrition for pregnant women to prevent complications and low birth weight.
• Skilled Birth Attendance:Deliveries by trained midwives or doctors to ensure safe childbirth.
• Postnatal Care:Monitoring the well-being of mothers and newborns after delivery.

Combating Childhood Illnesses

• Immunization Programs:Ensure universal access to vaccinations for preventable diseases like measles, pneumonia, and diarrhea.
• Improved Sanitation and Hygiene:Promote handwashing with soap, access to clean drinking water, and proper sanitation facilities.
• Pneumonia Control:Early diagnosis and treatment with antibiotics.
• Diarrhoea Management:Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) with clean water and electrolytes to prevent dehydration.

Addressing Malnutrition

• Nutritional Programs:Promote breastfeeding for newborns, provide access to nutritious food for mothers and children, especially during the crucial first 1000 days of life.

Public Awareness

• Educate families:Importance of good hygiene, breastfeeding, timely medical care for children, and recognizing danger signs of illness.

Additional Measures

• Invest in Healthcare Infrastructure:Equip health facilities, especially in rural areas, with necessary supplies and train healthcare workers.
• Address Social Determinants:Poverty, lack of education, and gender inequality significantly contribute to child mortality.
• Empowering Women:Education and economic empowerment of women lead to better health outcomes for themselves and their children.

Way Ahead

• By tackling causes behind the child mortality and implementing required measures, India can significantly reduce child mortality and ensure a healthier future for its young generation.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The United Nations Development Programme has released the Human Development Report 2023-24.

About Human Development Index (HDI)

• The HDI is a composite index computed based on three parameters – life expectancy, education, and gross national income (GNI) per capita.

Major Findings

• Rise in Global Ineqalities:After 20 years of convergence, the gap between the richest and poorest countries has started to widen from 2020.
• Rich countries are experiencing record levels of human development, while half of the world’s poorest countries remain below their pre-covid level.
• SDG Goal: Before the covid crisis, the world was on track to reach an average “very high” HDI by 2030, coinciding with the deadline for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
• Now it is off track, with every region running below its pre-2019 projections.
• India:India has been ranked 134th out of 193 countries. India’s ranking has improved by one position this year.
• India has been placed in the medium human development category.
• India saw improvements across all HDI indicators– life expectancy, education, and Gross National Income (GNI) per capita.
• India demonstrated progress in reducing gender inequality, India’s GII value is better than the global and South Asian averages.
• India also has one of the largest gender gaps in the labour force participation rate—a 47.8 percentage point difference between women (28.3%) and men (76.1%).

• India’s Neighbours:Sri Lanka has been ranked at 78, while China is ranked 75, both categorized under the High Human Development category.
• Bhutan stands at 125 and Bangladesh is in the 129th position.
• Nepal (146) and Pakistan (164) have been ranked lower than India.
• Top Ranked:Switzerland has been ranked number one followed by Norway and Iceland.
• Bottom Ranked:Central African Republic (191), South Sudan (192) and Somalia (193) were at the bottom of the Index.

Recommendation as per the Report for Improvement in HDI:

• Planetary public goods for climate stabilityas we confront the unprecedented challenges of the Anthropocene;
• Digital global public goods for greater equityin harnessing new technologies for equitable human development;
• New and expanded financial mechanisms, including a novel track in international cooperation that complements humanitarian assistance and traditional development aid to low-income countries; and
• Dialing down political polarizationthrough new governance approaches focused on enhancing people’s voices in deliberation and tackling misinformation.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: A committee led by former President Ram Nath Kovind submitted a report on the ‘One Nation One Election’ initiative to the President.

Background

• Simultaneous Elections(One Nation One Election) refer to the idea of holding Lok Sabha and State legislative assembly elections together, with the aim of reducing the frequency of elections and their associated costs.
• Simultaneous elections in India to the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies were held in the years 1951-52, 1957, 1962 and 1967. 
• Thereafter, the schedule could not be maintained and the elections to the Lok Sabha and the State legislative assembly have still not been realigned.

Suggestions of the Panel

• Opting Step wise Process: According to the panel, simultaneous polls to Lok Sabha and state assembly elections can be held in the 1st step, followed by local body (municipal and panchayat) polls within 100 days in the second step.
• In case of hung House: No-confidence motion, fresh elections could be held only for the remaining term of the immediately preceding full term of the House.
• Constitution Amendments Needed: The panel has recommended amendments to Article 83(duration of Houses of Parliament) and Article 172 (duration of State legislatures) of the Constitution.
• This constitutional amendment will not need ratification by the States.
• Ratification of states:The panel also recommended amendments to Constitution which requires ratification by the States;
• Article 324Aof the Constitution to allow simultaneous elections in panchayats and municipalities; and
• Article 325to allow the Election Commission of India (ECI), in consultation with State election authorities, to prepare a common electoral roll and voter ID cards.

Arguments In Favour of One Nation One Election

• It will reduce the huge expenditure incurred for conducting separate elections every year.
• The problem of frequent elections leads to imposition of MCC over prolonged periods of time which affects the normal governance. Simultaneous elections can overcome such issues.
• Simultaneous elections will free the crucial manpower which is often deployed for prolonged periods on election duties.
• The focus on governance will increase, instead of being constantly in election mode.

Arguments Against One Nation One Election

• All states and the central government face massive logistical challenges including coordinating the schedules, resources etc.
• It may help the dominant national party or the incumbent at the Centre at the cost of regional parties and regions issues can be overshadowed by the national issues.

Way Ahead

• Synchronized polls for all 3 tiers of government will improve governance architecture. It will enhance “transparency, inclusivity, ease and confidence of voters.
• The 22nd Law Commission, examining the simultaneous polls issue, is expected to recommend simultaneous polls from the 2029 general election cycle.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The average global sea surface temperature (SST) for February 2024 stood at 21.06 degree Celsius, the highest ever in a dataset that goes back to 1979.

• Sea surface temperature is the temperature of the water at the ocean surface.

Reasons for Rising SST

• Human Activities:Since the Industrial Revolution kicked off in the 19th Century, human activities such as burning fossil fuels have released high levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere.
• Carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and nitrous oxide are some of the notable GHGs, which trap heat in the atmosphere and contribute to global warming.
• As a result, the average global temperature has risen at least 2 degree Celsius above pre-industrial times.
• Absorption by Oceans:Almost 90 percent of the extra heat trapped by GHGs has been absorbed by the oceans, making them steadily warmer over the decades.
• El Niño: A weather pattern that refers to an abnormal warming of surface waters in the equatorial Pacific Ocean — has contributed to both ocean warming and rising global surface temperatures. 
• Weaker Winds:There is also less dust blowing off the Sahara Desert recently due to weaker-than-average winds. 
• Typically, the dust forms a “giant umbrella that shades” the Atlantic water and reduces ocean temperatures.
• But now, the umbrella has partially folded and more of the Sun is beating down on the ocean.

Impact of Rising SST

• Ocean Stratification:Warmer oceans lead to an increase in ocean stratification — the natural separation of an ocean’s water into horizontal layers by density, with warmer, lighter, less salty, and nutrient-poor water layering on top of heavier, colder, saltier, nutrient-rich water.
• Usually, ocean ecosystems, currents, wind, and tides mix these layers.
• The rise in temperatures, however, has made it harder for water layers to mix with each other. 
• Due to this, oceans are able to absorb less carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and the oxygen absorbed isn’t able to mix properly with cooler ocean waters below, threatening the survival of marine life.
• Threat to Phytoplanktons: Nutrients are not able to travel up to the surface of the oceans from below. This could threaten the population of phytoplankton — single-celled plants that thrive on the ocean surface and are the base of several marine food webs.
• Phytoplankton areeaten by zooplankton, which are consumed by other marine animals such as crabs, fish, and sea stars.
• Therefore, if the phytoplankton population plummets, there could be a collapse of marine ecosystems.
• Marine Heat Waves:Warmer oceans cause marine heat waves (MHWs), which occur when the surface temperature of a particular region of the sea rises to 3 or 4 degree Celsius above the average temperature for at least five days. 
• Between 1982 and 2016,such heatwaves have doubled in frequency and have become longer and more intense, according to the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
• MHWs are devastating for marine ecosystems as they contribute to coral bleaching, and also impact the migration pattern of aquatic animals.
• Increase in Intensity of Cyclones:Warmer temperatures lead to a higher rate of evaporation as well as the transfer of heat from the oceans to the air. 
• That’s why, when storms travel across hot oceans, they gather more water vapour and heat.
• This results in more powerful winds, heavier rainfall, and more flooding when storms reach the land — meaning heightened devastation for humans.

Conclusion

• In 2023, the concentration of GHG the highest levels ever recorded in the atmosphere.
• The only way to avoid or blunt the aforementioned consequences is to reduce GHG emissions. 

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The minister of Earth Sciences confirmed that the Samudrayaan mission is scheduled to explore the bed of the ocean by 2025 end.

• India is on a path to send its scientists to study the deep ocean 6 km under the sea surface under the mission.

India’s Deep Ocean Mission (DOM)

• DOM is implemented by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES)and was approved in 2021 at a cost of nearly Rs 4,077 crore over a five-year period in a phased manner.

Samudrayaan Mission

• As a part of DOM, India’s flagship deep ocean mission, ‘Samudrayaan’, was initiated in 2021 by the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
• With ‘Samudrayaan’, India is embarking on a crewed expedition to reach a depth of 6,000 m to the ocean bed in the central Indian Ocean.
• This journey will be accomplished by Matsya6000, a deep-ocean submersible.

Matsya6000

• The Matsya6000 is India’s flagship deep-ocean human submersible that aims to reach the ocean bed at a depth of 6,000 m.
• Accompanied by three crew members, called “aquanauts”, the submersible carries a suite of scientific tools and equipment designed to facilitate observations, sample collection, basic video and audio recording, and experimentation.
• The submersible will be equipped with a suite of scientific sensors and tools, and have an operational endurance of12 hours, which is expandable up to 96 hours in the event of an emergency.
• Constructed from a titanium alloy, the sphere is engineered to withstand pressures of up to 6,000 bar.
• It can move at a speed of about 5 km/hr using underwater thrusters.

Significance

• So far, countries such as the S., Russia, China, France and Japan have carried out successful deep-ocean crewed missions. India is poised to join the ranks of these nations by demonstrating expertise of and capability for such missions.
• The ‘New India 2030’ document outlines the blue economy as the sixth core objective for India’s growth. The years 2021-2030 have been designated by the United Nations as the ‘Decade of Ocean Science’.
• DOM is one of nine missions under the Prime Minister’s Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council (PMSTIAC).
• The mission is significant for the sustainable extraction of valuable resources, including polymetallic nodules and polymetallic sulfides.