General Studies Paper-3

Context: The Global E-waste Monitor 2024, brought out by United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), International Telecommunication Union (ITU), and Fondation Carmignac, a corporate foundation.

Key findings

• The world produced 62 billion kg of electronic waste (e-waste) in 2022.
  • That number is projected to rise to 82 billion kg in 2030
• The world’s generation of electronic waste is rising five times faster than documented e-waste recycling
• The report also highlighted the composition of the 62 billion kg of e-waste.
  • It contained 31 billion kg of metals, 17 billion kg of plastics and 14 billion kg of other materials (minerals, glass, composite materials, etc.)
• Region wise: Among regions, Europe has the highest rate of documented formal collection and recycling of e-waste at 42.8 percent.
  • Meanwhile, Africa generates the lowest rates of e-waste but struggles to recycle it.
  • Countries in Asia generate almost half of the world’s e-waste (30 billion kg) but have made limited advances in e-waste management; moreover, relatively few of them have enacted legislation or established clear e-waste collection targets.

Impacts and Challenges

• E-waste, any discarded product with a plug or battery, is a health and environmental hazard, containing toxic additives or hazardous substances such as mercury, which can damage the human brain and coordination system
• Challenges contributing to the widening gap include technological progress, higher consumption, limited repair options, shorter product life cycles, society’s growing electronification, design shortcomings, and inadequate e-waste management infrastructure.

Global policy

• On the policy front, 81 countries have adopted e-waste policy, legislation or regulation. Sixty-seven countries have legal provisions on EPR for e-waste.
• Another 46 have provisions on e-waste collection rate targets. Finally, 36 countries have provisions on e-waste recycling rate targets.

Status in India

• The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has comprehensively revised the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016 and notified the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 in November, 2022 and the same is in force since 1st April, 2023.
• These new rules intend to manage e-waste in an environmentally sound manner and put in place an improved Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) regime for e-waste recycling wherein all the manufacturer, producer, refurbisher and recycler are required to register on a portal developed by the CPCB.
• The new provisions would facilitate and channelize the informal sector to the formal sector for doing business and ensure recycling of E-waste in an environmentally sound manner.
• Provisions for environmental compensation and verification & audit have also been introduced.

Suggestions

• Amidst the hopeful embrace of solar panels and electronic equipment to combat the climate crisis and drive digital progress, the surge in e-waste requires urgent attention.
• There is an immediate call for greater investment in infrastructure development, more promotion of repair and reuse, capacity building, and measures to stop illegal e-waste shipments.
• Concrete steps are urgently needed to address and reduce e-waste.
• Improved e-waste management could result in a global net positive of US $38 billion, representing a significant economic opportunity while addressing climate change and health impacts.
• We must seize the economic and environmental benefits of proper e-waste management; otherwise, the digital ambitions of our future generations will face significant risks.
• Monitoring the quantities and flows of e-waste is essential for evaluating developments over time, and to set and assess targets towards a sustainable society and circular economy.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

India and the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) held their inaugural Foreign Ministers meeting in Riyadh, where they adopted a Joint Action Plan for 2024-2028.

About

• This plan encompasses various collaborative activities in health, trade, agriculture, food security, transportation, energy, and culture.
• The plan allows for additional cooperative areas based on mutual agreement.
• EAM S. Jaishankar also held separate bilateral meetings with his counterparts from Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Kuwait and Bahrain on the margins of the India-GCC Ministerial meeting.

Gulf Region

• The Gulf Region typically refers to the countries surrounding the Persian Gulf in the Middle East.
• It includes nations like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
• This region is known for its vast oil reserves, which have significantly influenced global economics and politics.

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

• It is a political and economic alliance of six Middle Eastern countries—Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman.
• It was established in 1981.
• It is Headquartered at Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
• It aims to achieve unity among its members based on their common objectives and their similar political and cultural identities, which are rooted in Arab and Islamic cultures.
• Presidency of the council rotates annually.

Importance of Gulf Region for India

• India’s priorities include attracting investments to increase economic growth, addressing regional security concerns (including in the Arabian Sea and the Gulf), and enhancing its regional presence and influence.
• Energy Security: The Gulf countries are major suppliers of crude oil and natural gas to India.
• India is highly dependent on Gulf oil for its energy needs, making the region crucial for India’s energy security.
• Remittance: Remittances from Indian expatriates working in the Gulf contribute significantly to India’s economy.
• Remittance is the non-commercial transfer of money by an individual to his/her home country or family.
• Security Cooperation: The Gulf region is strategically important for India’s security interests, given its location and influence in the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean regions.

India’s Relations with GCC

• Strategic Partnership: GCC is a major trade and investment partner for India. While India has close economic and political ties with all countries, the strategic partnership exists with only Saudi Arabia, UAE, and Oman.
• Energy Security: The Gulf region fulfilled 55.3% of India’s total crude oil demand in 2022–23, compared to 63.9% in 2021–22. However, oil imports from Russia have been declining in 2023–24, and there are signs that India’s decreasing dependence on Gulf oil is already reversing.
• Trade and Investment: The GCC is India’s largest regional bloc trading partner. Trade with the GCC comprised 15.8 percent of India’s total trade in FY2022-23, compared to 11.6 percent of total trade with the European Union.
• The UAE has consistently been India’s principal trading partner within the Gulf and is India’s third-largest trading partner overall, with Saudi Arabia in fourth place.
• India also has a significant trade deficit with the GCC which is driven by India’s dependence on GCC countries for oil and gas imports.
• India’s regional geo-economic focus has driven it to engage with the I2U2 grouping and to join the India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC).
• The two sides signed an inter-governmental framework agreement on IMEC. However, both initiatives risk being delayed by the Hamas–Israel war.
• Defence Relations: India’s defense engagements with these countries are gaining significant momentum.
• The Indian Navy established bilateral exercises with the UAE in 2018, with Qatar in 2019, and with Bahrain and Saudi Arabia in 2021.
• The Indian Army held its first exercises with the UAE and Saudi Arabia in 2024.
• The UAE is becoming India’s key regional defence partner; the UAE and Oman are the only regional countries with which India holds army, air force and navy exercises.
• India and the UAE have started trilateral military cooperation with France, holding a maritime exercise in 2023 and an air-force exercise in 2024.

Challenges Ahead 

• The outbreak of the Hamas–Israel war and shipping attacks in the Red Sea directly impact India’s energy security and economic growth.
• Yet India remains reluctant to take an active role in the complex politics of the Middle East and is back to its long-standing balancing act between the Gulf, Iran and Israel. This could become more difficult if the war escalates further.
• The war has also impacted the I2U2 minilateral group, through the continued postponement of a senior-officials meeting since 2023.
• India has called for economic initiatives such as I2U2 and IMEC to progress despite the conflict.
• Other challenges include finalising the India–GCC Free Trade Agreement (FTA), which was initially delayed due to a change in the GCC’s chief trade negotiator.
• The key issue will be reaching an agreement that satisfies all GCC states.
• Additionally, India must manage diplomatic relations carefully following Islamophobic comments made by Indian officials in 2022.
• Any Islamophobic rhetoric from Indian nationals stands in contrast to the growing government-to-government display of religious tolerance between India and the Gulf.

Way Forward 

• Growing security challenges are sharpening the need for India to become a key ‘strategic partner’ of the Gulf states and to enlarge its regional presence and influence.
• Increased strategic convergence spanning political, economic and security interests has resulted in a new framework for India–Gulf relations, which, if successfully maintained, will enhance trust levels and enable cooperation to become more ambitious in scope.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Union Home Minister Amit Shah addressed the first Foundation Day program of the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) and launched key initiatives for prevention of cyber crime.

About

• During the event, four platforms of the I4C were launched;
• Cyber fraud mitigation center (CFMC);
• Samanvaya Platform, for cybercrime data repository, sharing, mapping, and analytics, as well as a coordination tool for law enforcement agencies.
• The cyber commandos programme: The government has planned to train and prepare 5,000 cyber commandos over the next five years to enhance cybersecurity.
• Suspect registry: It is an initiative to strengthen fraud risk management by creating a registry of identifiers based on the National Cybercrime Reporting Portal in collaboration with banks and financial intermediaries.

What is Cybercrime?

• Cyber crime is the use of digital technologies such as computers and the internet to commit criminal activities.
• These cases are financial fraud (credit card fraud, online transaction fraud), crime against women and children with regard to sexually explicit material, and deep fake content etc.
• According to the Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution, cybercrimes are within the purview of State subjects.
• According to the ‘Crime in India’ report released by the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), there has been a 24.4 percent increase in Cyber Crime Cases across India.

Reasons for increase in Cybercrime

• Rapid Digitalization: With a growing number of individuals and businesses relying on the Internet and digital technologies there are more opportunities for cybercriminals to exploit vulnerabilities.
• Large Internet User Base: India has 95 crore Internet users. With a large population using the internet, there are more potential targets for cybercriminals, making it a lucrative market for cyberattacks.
• Inadequate Cybersecurity Infrastructure: In India the cybersecurity infrastructure is still developing. Many organizations, especially smaller businesses, may not have robust cybersecurity measures in place, making them easy targets for cybercriminals.
• Insider Threats: Insider threats, where employees or individuals with access to sensitive information misuse it for malicious purposes, are a significant concern in India, particularly in the corporate sector.
• Payment Systems Vulnerability: With the rise of digital payments and online transactions, there is an increased risk of financial crimes such as phishing, credit card fraud, and online scams.
• In 2024, India saw UPI (Unified Payments Interface) transactions worth about Rs 20,64,000 crore which is 46 percent of the global digital transactions.
• Low digital literacy: Lower awareness among the general public and digital gaps amongst nations create an unsustainable environment in the cyber domain.

Effects of Cybercrime

• Financial Losses: Cybercrime leads to substantial financial losses for individuals and organizations through theft of funds, fraudulent activities, or the cost of restoring compromised systems.
• National Security Concerns: Cyberattacks with a geopolitical motive pose national security threats. The attacks target government agencies, critical infrastructure, or defense systems, compromising a nation’s security.
• Data Breaches: The unauthorized access and theft of sensitive data compromises the confidentiality of personal and financial information, causing reputational damage and potential legal consequences.
• Disruption of Services: Cyberattacks disrupt essential services and critical infrastructure, impacting businesses, governments, and individuals.
• Loss of Intellectual Property: Businesses suffer from the theft of intellectual property, trade secrets, and proprietary information which undermine competitiveness and innovation, leading to economic repercussions.

Government steps for Cybersecurity

• Information Technology Act, 2000: Section 43, 66, 70, and 74 of the IT Act, 2000 deal with hacking and cyber crimes.
• Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) issues alerts and advisories regarding latest cyber threats/vulnerabilities and countermeasures to protect computers and networks on a regular basis.
• National Cyber Coordination Centre (NCCC) has been set up to generate necessary situational awareness of existing and potential cyber security threats and enable timely information sharing for proactive, preventive and protective actions by individual entities.
• Cyber Swachhta Kendra (Botnet Cleaning and Malware Analysis Centre) has been launched for detection of malicious programs and provides free tools to remove the same.
• Bharat National Cyber Security Exercise 2023: Bharat NCX will help strategic leaders to better understand cyber threats, assess readiness, and develop skills for cyber crisis management and cooperation.

Conclusion

• The increasing use of technology is also causing many threats. That is why cybersecurity is no longer limited to the digital world but has also become an important aspect of national security.
• Most cyber crimes are trans-national in nature with extra-territorial jurisdiction. Therefore, ‘data localisation’ is required, so that enforcement agencies are able to get timely access to the data of suspected Indian citizens.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: In the 2024-25 Union Budget, the Finance Minister stated, “From 2026-27 onwards, we aim to reduce the fiscal deficit each year to ensure Union government debt declines as a percentage of GDP.”

• The speech also says that the Centre’s fiscal deficit would be reduced to 4.5% of GDP in 2025-26 from its budgeted level of 4.9% in 2024-25.

What is the fiscal deficit?

• Fiscal Deficit is defined as excess of total budget expenditure (revenue and capital) over total budget receipts (revenue and capital) excluding borrowings during a fiscal year.
• Fiscal Deficit = Total Expenditure – (Revenue Receipts + Non-Debt Creating Capital Receipts).

National Debt

• The fiscal deficit is different from the national debt.
• The national debt is the total amount of money that the government of a country owes its lenders at a particular point in time.
• It is usually the amount of debt that a government has accumulated over many years of running fiscal deficits and borrowing to bridge the deficits.

Implications of fiscal deficit

• Inflationary Pressure: When a country’s government runs a persistently high fiscal deficit, this can eventually lead to higher inflation as the government will be forced to use fresh money issued by the central bank to fund its fiscal deficit.
• Higher fiscal deficit causes higher debt which eventually leads to the higher ratio of interest payment to revenue receipts. Hence there will be lower shares for financing non-interest expenditures.
• Crowding Out effect: When the government borrows a large portion of available funds from financial markets to finance its deficit, it crowds out private investment with reduced access to credit for businesses and individuals.
• This can hinder economic growth and productivity.
• Reduced Fiscal Space: A high fiscal deficit limits the government’s ability to respond to economic shocks or crises.
• With limited fiscal space, the government may be unable to implement countercyclical fiscal policies such as increased spending or tax cuts to stimulate economic growth during downturns.
• Difficulty in borrowing: As a government’s finances worsen, demand for the government’s bonds begins to drop, forcing the government to offer to pay a higher interest rate to lenders.

Benefits of lower fiscal deficit

• A consistent reduction in the fiscal deficit will improve credit ratings by international rating agencies. Higher credit ratings make it cheaper for India to borrow in global markets, reducing the cost of external debt.
• When the fiscal deficit is lower, less money is diverted to debt servicing, leaving more funds for development projects like infrastructure, education, and healthcare.
• Lower deficits will improve the balance of payments in favor of India, by reducing the reliance on foreign borrowing. It will help in stabilizing the exchange rate and the overall current account.
• A lower fiscal deficit signals fiscal discipline and responsible government management of finances. This can enhance investor confidence, leading to increased foreign and domestic investment.

The reforms needed

• There is a need to follow the recommendations of the NK Singh committee, 2017 which proposed a draft Debt Management and Fiscal Responsibility Bill, 2017.
• Incentivizing Financial Savings: Promoting higher household financial savings through tax incentives on financial products, improving returns on long-term savings schemes, and enhancing financial literacy.
• Infrastructure Finance Reforms: Improving mechanisms for financing infrastructure projects by involving the private sector through public-private partnerships (PPP), infrastructure bonds, and development of finance institutions.

Concluding remarks

• The recent pronouncements talk of the debt-GDP ratio as the policy variable, however they do not specify what that target is for India and what the path would be to reach that target from the current levels of debt-GDP ratio.
• With the current lower levels of household financial savings, it is better for the central government to stick to 3% of GDP as a limit to fiscal deficit. Any relaxation of this rule will only lead to fiscal imprudence.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: US announced a “new partnership” with India to explore semiconductor supply chain opportunities.

About

• It will include a comprehensive assessment of India’s existing semiconductor ecosystem, regulatory framework, workforce and infrastructure needs.
• It will serve as the “basis for potential future joint initiatives” to strengthen and grow this critical sector.
• The US Department of State will partner with the India Semiconductor Mission, to explore opportunities to grow and diversify the global semiconductor ecosystem under the International Technology Security and Innovation (ITSI) Fund, created by the CHIPS Act of 2022.
• The Creating Helpful Incentives to Produce Semiconductors (CHIPS) and Science Act is intended to lure microchip manufacturing back to the US after decades of companies offshoring the technology.

What are Semiconductors?

• Semiconductors are materials with electrical properties that fall between those of conductors (like metals) and insulators (like rubber).
• They have a unique ability to conduct electricity under certain conditions while acting as insulators under others.
• They are sometimes referred to as integrated circuits (ICs) or microchips made from pure elements, typically silicon or germanium.
• In a process called doping, small amounts of impurities are added to these pure elements, causing large changes in the conductivity of the material.
• Applications: Semiconductors are used in a vast range of electronic devices.
• Transistors, which are fundamental components of modern electronic circuits, rely on semiconductor materials.
• They act as switches or amplifiers in everything from computers to cell phones.
• Semiconductors are also used in solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits.

India’s Semiconductor Industry

• In 2022, the Indian semiconductor market was valued at US$ 26.3 billion and is projected to expand at a CAGR of 26.3% to US$ 271.9 billion by 2032.
• Semiconductor devices include diodes, transistors and photovoltaic cells assembled or not assembled in modules or panels, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and mounted piezo-electric crystals.

Factors favouring India

• Skilled Workforce: India leads the world with record number of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) graduates, offering the much-needed skilled workforce required in semiconductor manufacturing, design, research, and development.
• Cost Advantage: India offers a substantial cost advantage for semiconductor manufacturing due to the lower labour cost, supply chain efficiency and emerging ecosystem.
• Global Supply Chain Diversification: India has become a preferred destination for back-end assembly and testing operations amidst this industry relocation, with potential for future front-end manufacturing.
• Policy support: The Indian government has promptly seized the opportunity following the global semiconductor supply chain glut after the pandemic and showed great intent through policy support to present India as an alternative to China in the global semi supply chain.

India’s Semiconductor Ecosystem

• Supply disruptions during the Covid-19 pandemic and the geopolitical tensions arising out of China’s aggressive moves in the Taiwan Strait and the South China Sea have brought urgency to India’s efforts to develop its own semiconductor ecosystem.
• The global chip industry is dominated by companies from a very small number of countries, and India is a late entrant into this high-tech and expensive race.
• India Semiconductor Mission: It functions as a dedicated division within the Digital India Corporation.
• Its main goal is to nurture a strong semiconductor and display ecosystem to position India as a prominent global player in electronics manufacturing and design.

Under ISM, there are several schemes in place:

• The government offers incentives for manufacturing setup in India:
• Under the Semiconductor Fab Scheme, fiscal support of 50% of the project cost on an equal footing for all technology nodes.
• Under the Display Fab Scheme, fiscal support of 50% of the project cost on an equal footing basis.
• Under the Compound Semiconductor Scheme, fiscal support of 50% of the capital expenditure on an equal footing basis, including support for discrete semiconductor fabs.
• In February 2024, the government approved the establishment of three semiconductor plants, two in Gujarat and one in Assam.

Conclusion

• Taiwan produces more than 60 percent of the world’s supply of semiconductors and more than 90 percent of the most advanced chips.
• Given the critical importance of semiconductor chips in almost everything, from missiles to mobile phones and cars to computers, the partnerships with the US have geo-strategic and geo-economic importance.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: India and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) for civil nuclear cooperation.

About

• During the 2015 visit of Prime Minister Narendra Modi to the UAE, both countries had agreed to cooperate in “peaceful use of nuclear energy”, including in areas of “safety, health, agriculture, and science and technology.”
• The agreement is part of the UAE’s policy of expanding investments into the nuclear energy sector.
• LNG Supply: Apart from the nuclear cooperation-related MoU, the two sides signed an MoU for long-term LNG supply between Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) and Indian Oil Corporation Limited.

India’s Civil Nuclear Cooperation

• Civil nuclear cooperation involves collaboration between countries or organizations to develop and use nuclear technology for peaceful purposes.
• It can encompass a variety of activities, including: Energy Production, Regulatory and Safety Standards, Nuclear Fuel Supply, and Non-Proliferation Efforts.
• India’s civil nuclear program is aimed at harnessing nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, primarily electricity generation, and other applications.
• India has Nuclear cooperation with France, Russia, U.S.A and Japan.

Related Agreements

• Indo-U.S. Nuclear Deal (2005): The deal was instrumental in improving India’s access to global nuclear markets.
• Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement with the U.S. (2008): It allowed India access to civilian nuclear technology and fuel from the international market.
• This agreement required India to separate its civilian and military nuclear facilities, with the civilian facilities subject to safeguards by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

Key Reactors and Projects:

• Major nuclear power plants in India include those located in Tarapur, Kudankulam, and Rajasthan.
• These facilities play a significant role in India’s nuclear energy production.
• Fast Breeder Reactors: India is developing advanced nuclear reactors, such as Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs), which use plutonium to generate more fuel than they consume.
• Thorium-Based Reactors: India has a long-term vision of utilizing its abundant thorium resources in nuclear reactors.
• The country is working on thorium-based reactors, including the Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR), as part of its three-stage nuclear program.

Brief overview of the UAE and India relations

• Political: India and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) established diplomatic relations in 1972.
• Multilateral Cooperation: India and the UAE are currently part of several plurilateral platforms such as I2U2 (India-Israel-UAE-USA) and UFI (UAE-France-India) Trilateral, etc. UAE was also invited as a Guest Country to the G-20 Summit
• Economic & Commercial: India UAE trade, valued at US$ 180 million per annum in the 1970s, is today US$ 84.84 billion making UAE, India’s third largest trading partner for the year 2021-22 after China and US.
• Moreover, UAE is the second largest export destination of India (after the US) with an amount of nearly US$ 31.61 billion for the year 2022-23.
• The Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2022 as a major step in deepening trade relations.
• Defence cooperation: It is steered through a Joint Defence Cooperation Committee (JDCC) at the Ministry level, with the signing of Agreement on Defence Cooperation in 2003, which came into effect in 2004.
• Space Cooperation: Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and the UAE Space Agency signed an MoU regarding cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes in 2016.
• Indian Community: Indian expatriate community of approximately 3.5 million is the largest ethnic community in UAE constituting roughly about 35 percent of the country’s population.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The recent rape and murder of a doctor at R G Kar Medical College and Hospital in West Bengal have once again spotlighted the issue of sexual violence in India.

• In response, the West Bengal government introduced the Aparajita Woman and Child Bill, 2024, proposing the mandatory death penalty for rape resulting in death or a permanent vegetative state.
• This move raises critical debates around the effectiveness of harsher punishments in deterring sexual violence and the broader challenges within India’s criminal justice system.

Background

• Over 90% of rape cases in India involve perpetrators known to the victims, underscoring the societal nature of this crime, as opposed to it being the isolated acts of deviant individuals.
• High-profile cases like the 2012 Delhi gang rape have led to significant public outrage, often resulting in demands for harsher punishments.
• However, despite these measures, the problem persists, highlighting the need for a more comprehensive approach to addressing sexual violence.

Legal and Constitutional Aspects

• The Indian judicial system has addressed the question of the death penalty in cases of sexual violence through landmark judgments.
• In Mithu v State of Punjab (1983), the Supreme Court declared the mandatory death penalty unconstitutional, as it violated the principle of judicial discretion in sentencing.
• Additionally, state-level amendments to central laws, such as the Indian Penal Code (IPC), require Presidential approval, complicating the implementation of region-specific legislation like the Aparajita Bill.
• India also struggles with low conviction rates in rape cases, hovering under 30%.
• The causes of this include delayed investigations, inadequate prosecutorial capacities, and institutional challenges within the judiciary. These problems impede the delivery of swift and fair justice.

Challenges in Addressing Sexual Violence

• India faces significant challenges in effectively addressing sexual violence:
• Ineffective Investigations:
• Police investigations in sexual violence cases are often delayed, leading to loss of crucial evidence and weakening the case.
• Prosecutorial Inefficiency:
• A lack of skilled prosecutors and the inability to handle sensitive cases results in poor legal representation for the victim.
• Judicial Delays:
• The institutional capacity of courts is insufficient to handle the volume of cases, leading to delays in trials.
• Witness Protection:
• Despite legal frameworks, there is a lack of effective witness protection, discouraging victims and witnesses from participating in trials.
• These issues undermine the criminal justice system’s ability to ensure certainty of punishment, which is critical for deterring crime.

Societal Perspectives and Misconceptions

• There is a misconception that harsher punishments, such as the death penalty, are sufficient to prevent sexual violence. However, research and international practices emphasize that the certainty of punishment is a more effective deterrent than its severity.
• Additionally, there is often selective outrage over stranger rapes, particularly those involving visible violence, while other forms of sexual violence, especially those within domestic or known settings, receive less attention.

Victim-Centric Approach

• Efforts to address sexual violence must center on the needs and well-being of survivors. There are critical gaps in the criminal justice process:
• Pre-trial and Trial Challenges:
• Survivors often face multiple challenges during the pre-trial and trial stages, including hostile questioning, public scrutiny, and prolonged court cases.
• Medical Examinations:
• Humane treatment during medical examinations is essential to avoid re-traumatizing survivors.
• Justice Beyond Punishment:
• Survivors often seek various forms of justice, such as recognition, support, and rehabilitation, which cannot be achieved solely through harsher punishments.
• The Witness Protection Scheme, though available in theory, lacks adequate implementation and is a crucial aspect of a victim-centric approach to ensure their safety and cooperation in legal proceedings.

International Best Practices

• Globally, the emphasis is on the certainty of punishment rather than its severity as a deterrent for sexual violence.
• Countries that have successfully reduced crime rates focus on strengthening criminal justice institutions, ensuring swift investigations, and providing timely prosecutions.
• In addition, addressing the root causes of sexual violence—such as gender inequality, poverty, and lack of education—through social reforms is key to long-term solutions.

Way Forward

• Broader Social Reforms:
• Addressing the root causes of sexual violence requires significant social reform, including education on gender equality, societal awareness, and better economic opportunities for marginalized communities.
• Strengthening Criminal Justice Institutions:
• Enhancing the capacity of investigative agencies, improving prosecutorial efficiency, and reducing judicial delays are essential to delivering timely and effective justice.
• Increased investment in witness protection schemes and victim support systems is also crucial.
• Focus on Victim Support and Rehabilitation:
• Rather than focusing solely on punitive measures, reforms should prioritize the needs of survivors, ensuring their rehabilitation and reintegration into society.
• Medical, legal, and psychological support should be made accessible to all survivors of sexual violence.

Conclusion

• While there is public demand for stricter punishments, including the death penalty, the focus must shift towards certainty of justice, institutional reforms, and victim-centered approaches.

Sexual violence is not just a criminal issue but a deeply rooted societal problem that requires multi-faceted solutions—spanning legal, social, and cultural domains.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Recently Chief Justice D Y Chandrachud pitches for implementing All India Judicial Services (AIJS) for quick filling of vacancies for expeditious disposal of cases and reducing pendency.

All-India Judicial Service (AIJS)

• Article 312 of the Constitution, as amended by the 42nd Amendment, provides for the creation of an AIJS.
• It also requires a resolution adopted by the Council of States with a two-thirds majority and a parliamentary law.
• The AIJS is a reform push to centralise the recruitment of judges at the level of additional district judges and district judges for all states.
• In the same way that the Union Public Service Commission conducts a central recruitment process and assigns successful candidates to cadres, judges of the lower judiciary are proposed to be recruited centrally and assigned to states.

Arguments favouring AIJS

• Fresh talent: A properly framed All India Judicial Service is important to strengthen the overall justice delivery system.
• A national service for judges not inferior to the post of district judges, with a superannuation age of 60, will be an attractive proposition for young lawyers to apply for it.
• This will give an opportunity for induction of suitably qualified fresh legal talent selected through an all-India merit selection system
• Representation to deprived sections: It will also address the issue of social inclusion by enabling suitable representation to marginalized and deprived sections of society.
• It may also facilitate inclusion of competent persons from marginalized sections and women in the judiciary.
• Reducing the pendency of the cases: Data from earlier this year said the backlog in the lower judiciary comprising the district and subordinate courts stood at 3.8 crore cases, thus accounting for the bulk of the more than 4.4 crore cases pending across the Indian judiciary.
• Judge-to-population ratio: In India there are about 19 judges per 10 lakh population even though the Law Commission had recommended that it should be at least 50 per 10 lakh people.
• All this points to an urgent need to ensure swift filling up of vacancies and ramping up of recruitment to the lower judiciary, for which the Centre has long proposed the creation of the AIJS.

Challenges

• Concern of centralisation: This Constitution recognises that rules governing the subordinate judiciary in the States will have to be superseded by a central law for this proposal to achieve fruition.
• It is unlikely that all States will agree to one more subject from their domain being consumed by centralisation.
• Key concerns were the dilution of the federal structure and that the proposal does not address structural issues plaguing the lower judiciary.
• Lack of consensus: There is no consensus on the proposal. Only two High Courts agreed to the idea, while 13 were against it.
• There is divergence of views on eligibility, age, selection criteria, qualification and reservation.
• Issue of language: Since cases in lower courts are argued in local languages, there have been apprehensions about how a person from north India can hold hearings in a southern state.
• Advantages of current system: The current system of recruitment of district judges through the respective High Courts and other subordinate judicial officers through public service commissions is more conducive to ensuring diversity, as there is scope for both reservation and a clear understanding of local practices and conditions.
• Unattractive career option: After enrolling, lawyers typically consider judicial service based on practical experience rather than academic brilliance.
• According to critics, toppers, especially from the few elite law schools, are unlikely to sit for a national judicial service recruitment examination.
• In comparison, options such as litigation, joining law firms and going into the corporate sector may appear more beneficial.
• Further, given that the number of district judges elevated to the High Courts is much lower than those from the Bar, the lack of certainty on career progression may also render a national judicial service unattractive.
• Different from civil services: Unlike the civil service, judges are not assisted by an experienced lower bureaucracy in decision-making, and they are required to be well-versed in the issues involved in judicial functioning.

Way ahead

• The AIJS has been pitched as a solution to judicial vacancies, lack of representation for the marginalized on the bench and the failure to attract the best candidate.
• AIJS needs to be designed in a way to get rid of its shortcomings and it is able to be a powerful technique for the vacancy in the judiciary.
• Adequate judges may be made to be handiest if they’re recruited in huge energy through AIJS similar to IAS, IPS, IFS, and different civil offerings.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: India faces significant strategic challenges in South Asia, highlighted by ongoing issues such as the military standoff between Indian and Chinese forces in Ladakh, the inconclusive 31st meeting of the India-China Border Affairs diplomatic mechanism, and the growing influence of China in neighbouring countries.

• These developments underscore the complex geopolitical landscape that India must navigate in its pursuit of regional stability and security.

Background

• Border Disputes with China and Pakistan:
• The Line of Actual Control (LAC) with China and the Line of Control (LoC) with Pakistan are flashpoints for military confrontation, as evidenced by recent standoffs in Ladakh and the continued insurgency in Jammu & Kashmir.
• These disputes undermine regional stability and impede diplomatic resolutions.
• China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and Maritime Silk Road:
• China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and the Maritime Silk Road are viewed with suspicion by India.
• The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), a major BRI project, passes through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK), which India claims as its own territory.
• Furthermore, China’s growing presence in the Indian Ocean through infrastructure investments in countries like Sri Lanka and the Maldives raises concerns of strategic encirclement, also known as the “String of Pearls” theory.
• Shifting Political Dynamics in Neighbouring Countries:
• Political shifts in India’s neighbouring countries have added to its challenges.
• For example, Maldives and Bangladesh, traditionally close allies, are showing increasing openness to Chinese investment and influence.
• Meanwhile, India’s strained relations with Nepal and Sri Lanka, partly due to internal political dynamics and perceived interference, pose challenges for India’s leadership in the region.

Economic Implications

• Trade Deficit with China:
• India’s trade deficit with China has ballooned to $85 billion, creating a significant economic vulnerability.
• India relies on China for crucial imports in sectors such as electronics, machinery, and pharmaceuticals.
• This dependency has strategic ramifications, particularly during times of heightened tension, as disruptions to supply chains could impact key industries.
• Mass Poverty and Jobless Growth:
• India continues to grapple with significant economic challenges, including mass poverty and jobless growth.
• Economic inequality and underemployment pose internal threats to India’s aspirations for development and global leadership.
• These domestic issues limit India’s ability to channel resources towards strategic objectives like defense modernization.

Defense and Security Challenges

• Dependence on Defense Imports:
• India’s continued reliance on foreign defense imports constrains its strategic autonomy.
• Despite being one of the world’s largest arms importers, the country still lags behind in the domestic production of advanced military equipment.
• This dependency limits India’s capacity to respond independently to emerging security threats and undermines its long-term defense posture.
• Modernization of Military Capabilities:
• The modernization of India’s military capabilities is essential to counter the growing threats posed by its regional adversaries.
• China’s rapid military advancements, coupled with Pakistan’s continued development of its nuclear arsenal, necessitate urgent upgrades to India’s conventional and nuclear forces.
• Emerging security threats, such as cyber warfare and hybrid warfare, further complicate India’s defense requirements.

Nuclear Deterrence:

• India’s nuclear deterrence strategy faces increasing challenges, as both China and Pakistan continue to enhance their nuclear capabilities.
• The evolving nuclear landscape in South Asia requires India to reassess its nuclear doctrine and develop robust countermeasures to ensure credible deterrence.

Diplomatic Considerations

• Perception of India as a “Big Brother”:
• India’s relationships with its neighbours have often been strained by perceptions of India as a regional “bully” or “big brother.”
• Countries like Nepal and Sri Lanka have expressed concerns about India’s interference in their domestic affairs. This perception complicates India’s ability to forge close, cooperative relationships in South Asia.
• Impact of Domestic Politics:
• Domestic political developments in India, including internal political polarization and challenges to democratic norms, have impacted its international image.
• Strategic Alliances:
• India’s diplomatic strategy must focus on building strong alliances and partnerships to counter regional threats.
• The Quad (India, the U.S., Japan, and Australia) represents a crucial platform for countering China’s growing influence in the Indo-Pacific region.
• Strengthening ties with Southeast Asian countries through initiatives like the Act East Policy is also essential.

Future Prospects

• Economic Potential:
• India is on track to become one of the largest economies by 2047, coinciding with the centenary of its independence.
• To achieve this, India must invest in technological advancements, infrastructure development, and manufacturing capabilities.
• Becoming a global manufacturing powerhouse is crucial to reducing economic vulnerabilities, particularly in sectors where India relies heavily on imports.
• Addressing Domestic Challenges:
• India must overcome significant domestic challenges, including mass poverty, inadequate healthcare, and low levels of education, to realize its full potential.
• Cooperative Neighbourhood:
• A stable and cooperative neighbourhood is essential for India’s aspirations of becoming a global power.
• Ensuring positive relations with neighbouring countries and reducing external threats through diplomacy and strategic partnerships will allow India to focus on internal development and international leadership.

Government Schemes

• Atmanirbhar Bharat:
• The Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-reliant India) initiative aims to boost domestic manufacturing, including in the defense sector.
• Neighbourhood First Policy:
• India’s Neighbourhood First Policy emphasizes improving relations with its immediate neighbours.
• Strengthening bilateral ties and fostering regional cooperation are essential for maintaining stability and countering external threats.
• Act East Policy:
• India’s Act East Policy seeks to strengthen economic and strategic ties with Southeast Asian countries.

Way Forward

• National Security Strategy:
• India must develop a coherent national security strategy that addresses its deterrence failures and prepares it to face both conventional and unconventional threats from China and Pakistan.
• Diversify Trade Partnerships:
• India should reduce its economic dependence on China by diversifying trade partnerships and investing in self-reliant industries.
• Self-reliance in Defense:
• Accelerating the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative in defense production will be crucial for India to maintain its strategic autonomy and counter regional threats.
• Update Nuclear Deterrence Strategy:
• Given the evolving nuclear landscape in South Asia, India should reassess and update its nuclear deterrence strategy to ensure that it remains a credible force against both China and Pakistan.

Conclusion

• India’s path to regional leadership and global power status is fraught with challenges, but by addressing the above issues with foresight and strategic planning, India can navigate the complexities of South Asia’s geopolitical landscape.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: A study published in the Nature journal by the International Food Policy Research Institute suggests that the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) has led to a significant reduction in infant deaths by improving sanitation.

About SBM:

• Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) was launched on October 2, 2014, to fulfil the vision of a cleaner India by October 2, 2019. The objective of the Mission was to eliminate open defecation, eradicate manual scavenging, and promote scientific solid waste management.

Key Findings of the Report:

• Infant and Child Mortality: The post-Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) period showed accelerated reductions in infant and under-five mortality rates.
• Toilet Coverage: Districts with over 30% toilet coverage under SBM saw a 5.3 lower Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) and 6.8 lower Under-Five Mortality Rate (U5MR).
• Improved Health Outcomes: Higher SBM coverage corresponded with greater utilization of health programs such as antenatal care (ANC) and institutional deliveries.
• Reduced Diarrheal Deaths: WHO reported 300,000 fewer diarrheal deaths in 2019 compared to 2014 due to improved sanitation.
• Child Wasting: Non-ODF areas experienced 58% higher rates of child wasting (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation).
• Women’s Safety: 93% of women reported feeling safer at home with improved sanitation facilities (UNICEF).
• Education: Poor WASH facilities hinder student attendance and enrollment, particularly for girls.

Reasons for the success of the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM):

• Community Engagement: SBM combined toilet construction with community involvement, encouraging local ownership of sanitation efforts.
• Information, Education, and Communication (IEC): Substantial investments in IEC campaigns helped bring about behavioural changes by raising awareness of the importance of sanitation and hygiene.
• Capacity Building and Training: Extensive training programs for government officials, frontline workers, volunteers, and communities enhanced the implementation and sustainability of SBM.
• Waste Management Systems: Developed systems for waste segregation, collection, transportation, disposal, and treatment, including recycling centres for effective waste management.
• Citizen Engagement and Monitoring: Introduced mobile and web applications for active citizen participation, feedback, and monitoring of sanitation progress.
• National Annual Rural Sanitation Survey (NARSS): Periodic assessment of progress through NARSS ensured accountability and data-driven decision-making in rural sanitation efforts.

Limitations of Swachh Bharat Mission:

• Low Toilet Usage: Despite achieving 100% sanitation coverage by 2019, only 85% of rural Indians utilize safe and hygienic toilets, indicating a usage gap.
• Quality and Infrastructure Issues: Problems such as malfunctioning facilities, unhygienic conditions, and structural defects like full pits or collapsing superstructures impede toilet usage.
• Water Scarcity Impact: Limited water access, particularly in rural areas like Gujarat’s Dahod district, contributes to increased non-usage of toilets.
• Behavioural and Social Norms: Cultural norms and behaviours influence toilet usage, with some households repurposing toilets for activities other than defecation.
• Caste-Based Variances: Toilet access and usage exhibit variations across castes, with surprising trends showing higher non-usage rates among upper castes.
• Challenges in Larger Households: Overcrowding and inadequate facilities pose challenges to toilet usage in larger households.
• Issues in solid waste management: While toilet construction has been successful, scientific collection, segregation and disposal of growing waste volumes remain an issue due to resource and capacity constraints of urban local bodies.
• Partial focus on plastic waste: The mission has focused mostly on toilet construction and solid waste. Effectively tackling and recycling plastic waste is still a gap area.
• Centralized approach and targets: The focus has been on meeting toilet construction targets in a centralized, top-down manner. Decentralized, community-driven efforts have been fewer.

Way forward:

• Greater focus on behaviour changes communication and public awareness campaigns, especially for hygienic toilet use, waste segregation and not littering. Engaging school children and youth groups can be highly impactful.
• The “Darwaza Band” campaign and community-level awareness programs have promoted positive sanitation norms.
• Innovations in Technology: Decentralized sewage treatment plants, as seen in Devanahalli, highlight technological advancements in sanitation.
• Strengthening capacities of urban local bodies for scientifically collecting, segregating, transporting and processing different types of waste. Mechanized sweeping, underground waste bins can be expanded.
• Linking with other programmes: Align sanitation initiatives with other related programs like the Jal Jeevan Mission for better outcomes.
• Developing localized waste management models through community participation, and public-private partnerships, so that solutions are tailored to local needs.
• Programs like the “Nirmal Gram Puraskar” foster community involvement and awareness in achieving open-defecation-free villages.
• Expanding solid waste processing infrastructure through bio methanation plants, material recovery facilities, composting units etc. across towns and cities.
• Improved monitoring for functionality and maintenance of public/community toilets through citizen oversight and social audits.
• Expanding coverage of toilets to include slums and public spaces like bus stops, and parks, through customizable, prefabricated toilet models.
• Incentivizing waste segregation, recycling and reuse through both regulatory policies as well as awareness programs on circular economy principles.

Other initiatives for sanitation:

• Central Rural Sanitation Programme (CRSP): Launched in 1986, it was India’s initial step towards improving rural sanitation with substantial subsidies.
• Total Sanitation Campaign: Started in 1999, this marked a shift to a lower subsidy, demand-driven approach.
• Phase II of SBM-G: Focuses on sustainability, promoting solid and liquid waste management, and covering households left out earlier.
• National Annual Rural Sanitation Survey (NARSS): Conducted to assess rural sanitation coverage, showing 95% of rural India having toilet access.
• Rural Sanitation Strategy 2019 to 2029: The Ministry of Jal Shakti’s Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation (DDWS) has initiated a 10-year Rural Sanitation Strategy spanning from 2019 to 2029.

Conclusion

• The mission should transition from a toilet-construction-focused programme to a more holistic, decentralized, community-driven cleanliness model relying on public participation for sustainability. The aim should be to make Swachhata a national way of life.