General Studies Paper-3

Context: The government has approved the modified Pradhan Mantri Jaiv Indhan Vatavaran Anukool Fasal Awashesh Nivaran (PM-JI-VAN) Yojana.

About

• The modified scheme extends the implementation timeline by five years, i.e., until 2028-29.
• It now includes advanced biofuels produced from lignocellulosic feedstocks–such as agricultural and forestry residues, industrial waste, synthesis (syn) gas, algae, etc.–within its scope.
• To promote multiple technologies and multiple feedstocks, preference would now be given to project proposals with new technologies and innovations in the sector.
• Significance: The scheme aims to provide remunerative income to farmers for their agricultural residue and address environmental pollution.
  • The scheme also helps create local employment opportunities and contributes to India’s energy security and self-reliance.
  • It also supports the development of advanced biofuel technologies and promotes the Make in India Mission.
  • It also helps in achieving India’s ambitious target for net-zero GHG emissions by 2070.

About Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN scheme:

• In 2019, Government had notified the “Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN (Jaiv Indhan- Vatavaran Anukool fasal awashesh Nivaran) Yojana”.
• It aimed at providing financial support to integrated bio-ethanol projects for setting up Second Generation (2G) ethanol projects in the country using lignocellulosic biomass and other renewable feedstocks.

What are Biofuels?

• Biomass can be converted directly into liquid fuels, called biofuels.
• The two most common types of biofuels in use today are ethanol and biodiesel, both of which represent the first generation of biofuel technology.
• Ethanol: Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is a renewable fuel that can be made from various plant materials, collectively known as “biomass.”
• Biodiesel: It is a liquid fuel produced from renewable sources, such as new and used vegetable oils and animal fats and is a cleaner-burning replacement for petroleum-based diesel fuel.
  • It is nontoxic and biodegradable and is produced by combining alcohol with vegetable oil, animal fat, or recycled cooking grease.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: With 63% of its population in the working-age group and a median age of 28 years, India has a unique opportunity to harness its demographic dividend. However, realizing this potential requires overcoming significant employment challenges.

Key Analysis

Economic Dimension:

• India is the world’s fastest-growing large economy and the fifth-largest economy globally. The nation’s demographic dividend presents an opportunity for sustained growth.
• At 55.2% in 2022 (ILO report), the LFPR is lower than desired. Economic growth has been driven by the services sector, which typically creates fewer jobs than manufacturing, resulting in a decline in labour intensity.

Challenges:

• Although India isn’t experiencing jobless growth, the service-led growth pattern is insufficient to absorb the growing labor force.
• 45% of the workforce remains in agriculture, which only contributes 18% to GDP. This indicates low productivity and underemployment in agriculture.
• Around 19% of the workforce is employed in unorganized, non-agricultural sectors with low productivity.

Social Dimension (Labour Market)

• Sectors like toys, apparel, tourism, and logistics are labor-intensive and hold potential for job creation, but they remain underdeveloped.
• Only 4.4% of the workforce (15-29 years old) is formally skilled, indicating a vast skill deficit. This hinders employability and economic productivity.

Challenges:

• The informal economy employs a large share of the workforce but suffers from low productivity, lack of social security, and poor working conditions.
• The backbone of employment, Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs), are reluctant to scale up due to compliance burdens from outdated labor laws.

Technological Dimension

• The AI/ML revolution poses a risk to repetitive, low-skill jobs, but also creates opportunities for high-skill jobs in emerging tech sectors.
• Despite India having the second-largest talent pool in AI globally, the current gap between demand and supply is 51% (NASSCOM).

Challenges:

• Low-skill jobs are increasingly under threat due to automation, especially in sectors like manufacturing and services.
• There is a need for large-scale upskilling to prepare the workforce for a tech-driven economy.

Policy and Governance Dimension

• The impasse over the implementation of new labor codes is creating uncertainty, especially in labor-intensive sectors. Reform in labor laws is essential to ease compliance for MSMEs and attract investment.
• India’s economic growth has been capital-intensive, while labor-intensive growth is more suitable for its demographic profile.

Challenges:

• Much of the reform agenda, particularly in manufacturing and labor markets, requires action from state governments. Coordination between the Centre and States is crucial.
• The Centre’s influence in investments crowds out states, leading to inefficiencies in resource allocation.

Government Initiatives

• Make in India: Aims to promote manufacturing in India, creating jobs in labor-intensive sectors.
• Skill India Mission: Focuses on upskilling the workforce to meet industry requirements, with a focus on youth and marginalized communities.
• Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme: Provides incentives to companies in manufacturing sectors to boost production and job creation.
• PM Gati Shakti: Aims at integrated infrastructure development by coordinating between Ministries and States, enhancing logistics and connectivity.
• National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme (NAPS): Encourages skill development through apprenticeship training programs with industry participation.
• Startup India: Supports entrepreneurs and MSMEs in creating new jobs, with a focus on innovation and technological development.
• Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan: A comprehensive economic package focusing on self-reliance, including measures to support MSMEs and create employment.

Way Ahead

• Accelerating Reforms at State Level: States should lead the way in implementing labor codes to ease the regulatory burden on businesses and create an investor-friendly environment.
  • Encouraging states with strong manufacturing ecosystems to drive labor-intensive industries will help absorb excess labor from agriculture.
• Addressing the Skill Gap: Skilling must be seen as a lifelong process. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) must be scaled up to integrate industry-relevant skills into formal education and vocational training.
  • As AI/ML and automation expand, upskilling workers for high-skill tech roles is essential. Collaboration with tech companies will be crucial to build the required talent pool.
• Boosting MSMEs: Streamlining compliance processes and providing incentives for MSMEs to grow and scale will lead to more job creation.
  • Expanding access to affordable credit for MSMEs will help them invest in capacity expansion and improve productivity.
• Leveraging AI/ML: While AI/ML will create new jobs, India must ensure appropriate regulations are in place to govern their use. AI/ML education should be integrated into the national curriculum and skill development programs.
• Promoting Labour-Intensive Sectors: Sectoral Focus: Special focus should be placed on high-growth potential sectors like toys, apparel, tourism, and logistics to create jobs and absorb unskilled labor.
• Value Chain Upgradation: Gradually, sectors should move up the value chain, creating opportunities for higher-paying, skill-based jobs as the workforce matures.
• Fostering Centre-State Cooperation: Collaborative Planning: The Centre and States must work in tandem on infrastructure projects like PM Gati Shakti, ensuring that state governments have the flexibility to design and implement region-specific solutions.
  • Strengthening fiscal decentralization and empowering state governments to take ownership of job creation efforts will yield better results.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: In recent years, disputes between the Union government and the States have become more frequent.

Federalism in India

• Meaning:
  • Federalism refers to a vertical division of power in a political system. It is a system in which power is divided between a central authority and other constituents.
  • For e.g. in India, political power is divided between the Central government, state governments and the institutions of local governance.
• Features of a federal system:
  • Multiple levels of government: Federalism, by its very definition, requires multiple levels of government functioning within their defined territory.
  • Division of Power: The power is divided by the division of subjects between the entities so that the chances of conflict are reduced to a minimum.
  • Written Constitution: It ensures there is clarity in the respective division of power. Again, a rigid constitution ensures that this division of power is not easily disturbed.
  • Independent Judiciary: It acts as a dispute resolution mechanism between the different levels of government.
• Interdependence of state and Central Government:
  • India consciously adopted a version of federalism that made the Union government and State governments interdependent on each other (latter more vis-a-vis the former).
  • Thereby violating the primal characteristic of a federal constitution i.e., autonomous spheres of authority for Union and State governments.
• ‘Holding together’ Federalism:
  • India’s centralised federal structure was not marked by the process of ‘coming together’ but was an outcome of ‘holding together’ and ‘putting together’.
• Indestructible & Flexibility:
  • R. Ambedkar called India’s federation a Union as it was indestructible which is why the Constitution does not contain words related to federalism.
  • He also said that India’s Constitution holds requisite flexibility to be federal and unitary on a need basis.

Types of Federalism

• Cooperative Federalism:
  • It refers to the horizontal relationship between the entities in a federal structure.
  • Cooperative federalism refers to the cooperation between the two entities in pursuit of unified socio-economic development of the country.
• Competitive Federalism:
  • It refers to promoting healthy competition between the states to keep them motivated in pursuit of economic development.
  • The laggard states are expected to put in extra efforts to catch-up with the front-runners, while the front-runners are expected to work hard to retain their ranking in the indices.
• Fiscal Federalism:
  • It deals with the division of financial powers as well as the functions between multiple levels of the federal government.
  • It has within its ambit the imposition of taxes as well as the division of different taxes between the Centre and the constituent units.
  • Similarly, in the case of joint collection of taxes, an objective criterion is determined for the fair division of funds between the entities.
  • Usually, there is a constitutional authority (like Finance Commission in India) for the purpose to ensure fairness in the division.

About the increasing federal frictions

• Dependence over public expenditure:
  • Continuing economic reforms since 1991 has led to the relaxation of many controls on investments, giving some room to States.
  • But the autonomy regarding public expenditure policies is not absolute as State governments depend on the Centre for their revenue receipts.
  • This equation between the Centre and the States has given way to friction between them in recent days, leaving little room to negotiate.
• Others: Apart from issues around resource sharing, there are other areas that have emerged as sites of conflict.

These include:

• The homogenisation of social sector policies,
• Functioning of regulatory institutions and
• The powers of central agencies.

• Increasing influence of centre:
  • Ideally bulk of the policies in these spheres should be at the discretion of States, with an apex central body overseeing the process of resource allocation.
  • However, the apex bodies have often attempted to increase their influence and push States in directions that are amenable to the Centre.

Economic consequences of the federal frictions

• Dilemma of investments:
  • The spread of the Centre’s span of activities leads to a situation where the Centre starts crowding out the States in terms of investments.
  • Consider a case of infrastructure development in recent years.
  • The Centre launched the PM Gati Shakti, a digital platform, to incorporate schemes of various Ministries and State governments to achieve integrated planning and coordinated implementation of infrastructure connectivity projects.
  • All States and UTs had to prepare and operationalise a State master plan in line with the national master plan for seamless implementation.
  • However, the flexibility of States in formulating their master plan is curtailed by the centralisation of planning and implementation of the national master plan.
  • This leads to underinvestment by States.
• Concentrated spending:
  • The centre’s spending has become more concentrated within the three largest States of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat, accounting for nearly half of the expenditure by 16 States between 2021-22 and 2023-24.
  • Data for 25 States shows that a total of ₹49 lakh crore was budgeted for by these States but they spent only ₹5.71 lakh crore which is 76.2% of the total.
  • Investment by these States is important in terms of their impact on regional economies as they induce more local level linkages while national infrastructure projects forge more linkages with the global economy.
• Little competition:
  • In a scenario of friction with the Centre, State governments will engage in competition with other States and with the Centre. Welfare provisioning is one such area.
  • The Centre with enhanced fiscal space has more spending power, while States’ revenues, especially non-tax revenues, remain flat as possibilities of raising non-taxes are confined to a smaller sphere due to the direct provisioning of many utilities and services by the Centre.
• Inefficiencies associated with ‘parallel policies’:
  • Federal abrasions lead to either the Centre or the States duplicating the other’s policies.
  • The emergence of parallel schemes is mainly due to the trust deficit prevailing in the federal system, the fiscal costs of which have long run consequences on the economy.

Way ahead

• For securing the implementation of many of its laws and policies, the Centre depends on the States, particularly in the concurrent spheres.
• The States also entrust their executive functions, with the consent of the Centre, to the government or agencies of the Centre (Article 258A).

Such interdependence is inevitable, especially in a large, diverse, developing society and needs to be preserved.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: India has sent a formal notice to Pakistan,  seeking the “review and modification” of the Indus Water treaty (IWT).

About

• The latest notice is issued under Article XII (3) of the IWT, signaling India’s intent to revoke and renegotiate the 64-year-old treaty.
  • Article XII (3) states: “The provisions of this Treaty may from time to time be modified by a duly ratified treaty concluded for that purpose between the two Governments”.
• The two notifications come amidst a prolonged controversy over the construction of two hydel power projects by India in Jammu & Kashmir — one on Kishanganga, a tributary of Jhelum, in Bandipora district, and the other (Ratle Hydroelectric Project) onChenab in Kishtwar district.
  • Both are “run-of-the-river” projects, meaning they generate electricity (330 MW and 850 MW respectively) using the natural flow of the river, and without obstructing its course.
  • However, Pakistan has repeatedly alleged that both these projects violate the IWT.

The Indus Water Treaty

• The Indus Water Treaty was signed in 1960 between India and Pakistan after nine years of negotiations arranged by the World Bank.
• It governs the management and use of the Indus River system.
• Water Allocation: The treaty allocates the waters of the three eastern rivers (Beas, Ravi, and Sutlej) to India and the three western rivers (Indus, Chenab, and Jhelum) to Pakistan.
  • The treaty gave India about 30% of the water carried out by the Indus Rivers Systemn while Pakistan got 70% of the waters.
• Permanent Indus Commission: The treaty established a commission to facilitate communication and cooperation between the two countries regarding water management.
• Dispute Resolution: Provisions are included for addressing disputes, primarily through consultation and negotiation.
  • According to the treaty, there is a sequential, three-level mechanism where disputes are first decided at the level of the Indus Commissioners of the two countries, then escalated to the Neutral Expert who is appointed by the World Bank, and only then escalated to the Hague-based Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA).
• Development Projects: India is allowed to develop hydroelectric projects on the western rivers, provided they do not affect Pakistan’s water supply.

Concerns for India

• There is a significantly altered population demographics, coupled with connected agricultural and other uses of the waters.
• There is a need to accelerate the development of clean energy to meet India’s emission targets.
• It is the impact of persistent cross-border terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir which has impeded the smooth operations of the Treaty and undermined full utilization of India’s rights.
• The Indian Government has also asserted that the dispute resolution mechanism of the Treaty requires reconsideration.

Way Forward

• The Indus Waters Treaty is considered one of the most successful water-sharing endeavours in the world today.
• However, there is a need to update certain technical specifications and expand the scope of the agreement to address climate change.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The Union Cabinet unanimously approved the ‘one nation, one election’ proposal, paving the way for simultaneous elections for Lok Sabha, state Assembly and local bodies.

About

• The Union Cabinet has accepted the recommendations of the High-Level Committee on One Nation, One Election (ONOE), chaired by former President Ram Nath Kovind.
• The Committee has recommended a two-phase approach.
  • The first phase involves holding Lok Sabha and Assembly elections simultaneously, while the second phase proposes conducting local body elections within 100 days of the general elections.
• The Cabinet also recommended creating a common electoral roll for all elections and setting up an implementation group to oversee detailed nationwide discussions.
• It has recommended 18 constitutional amendments, most of which will not need ratification by state assemblies. However, these would require certain Constitution amendment bills that would have to be passed by Parliament.
• The Bill is likely to be introduced in the Parliament in the upcoming winter session.

What are Simultaneous Elections?

• Simultaneous Elections (One Nation One Election) refer to the idea of holding Lok Sabha and State legislative assembly elections together, with the aim of reducing the frequency of elections and their associated costs.
• Simultaneous elections in India to the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies were held in the years 1951-52, 1957, 1962 and 1967.
• Thereafter, the schedule could not be maintained and the elections to the Lok Sabha and the State legislative assembly have still not been realigned.

Arguments In Favour of One Nation One Election

• Reduced Expenditure: It will reduce the huge expenditure incurred for conducting separate elections every year.
• Streamlined Process: Managing one election cycle is logistically simpler than conducting multiple elections at different times. This can lead to more efficient use of administrative resources.
• The problem of frequent elections leads to imposition of Model Code of Conduct (MCC) over prolonged periods of time which affects the normal governance. Simultaneous elections can overcome such issues.
• The focus on governance will increase, instead of being constantly in election mode.
• Direct Accountability: With simultaneous elections, voters can hold parties accountable for both central and state governance at the same time, making it clearer how local and national policies impact their lives.

Arguments Against One Nation One Election

• Logistical Challenges: All states and the central government face massive logistical challenges including coordinating the schedules, resources etc.
• Local Priorities: It may help the dominant national party at the cost of regional parties and regions issues can be overshadowed by the national issues.
• Complex Reforms Needed: Implementing simultaneous elections would require significant constitutional amendments and changes to existing electoral laws, posing legal complexities.

Way Ahead

• Synchronized polls for all 3 tiers of government will improve governance architecture. It will enhance “transparency, inclusivity, ease and confidence of voters.
• Separately, the law commission is also likely to come up soon with its own report on simultaneous elections.
• The law commission is likely to recommend holding simultaneous polls for all three tiers of the government – the Lok Sabha, state assemblies and local bodies like municipalities and panchayats – starting 2029.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The Union Ministry of Agriculture is planning a Smart Precision Horticulture Programme under the existing Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) scheme.

About

• The government has also set up 22 Precision Farming Development Centres (PFDCs) across the country to test new technologies and modify them according to local needs.
• It will cover 15,000 acres of land in five years from 2024-25 to 2028-29 and is expected to benefit about 60,000 farmers.
• At present, the Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF), launched in 2020, has provisions for financing infrastructure projects for smart and precision agriculture.
• Under AIF, individual farmers as well as farmers’ communities such as Farmer Producer Organization, Primary Agricultural Credit Societies and SHGs are eligible for loans with interest subvention of 3% for using technological solutions in farm practices.

What is Precision Farming?

• Precision farming (PF) is an approach to farm management that uses information technology to ensure that the crops and soil receive exactly what they need for optimum health and productivity.
• Rather than applying similar inputs across the entire field, the approach aims to manage and distribute them on a site specific basis to maximize long-term cost benefit as well as prevent any waste.
• Over the last few decades, many technologies have been developed for PF; they can be divided into ‘soft’ and ‘hard.”
• Soft precision agriculture depends on visual observation of crops and soil management decisions based on experience and intuition, rather than statistical and scientific analysis.
• Hard precision agriculture uses all modern techniques such as GPS, remote sensing, and variable rate technology.

Precision Farming in India

• In India, the practice is so far developed for nutrient-use efficiency (NUE) and water-use efficiency (WUE).
• PF in the Indian landscape is yet to become an integral part of mainstream farming systems.
• However, technological advances and rising interest among scientific institutions bring new perspectives and reinvent the technology to suit all farm types and economic capabilities.

Use of Technology in Agriculture

• It includes integrating cutting-edge digital technology into the farm production system, including artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, uncrewed aviation systems, sensors, and communication networks.
• These innovations will increase returns, and enhance the efficacy of irrigation and other inputs.

Role of Technology for Agriculture in India

• Assess Soil Health: Technological interventions based on soil sensors, remote sensing unmanned aerial surveying and market insights, etc., will permit farmers to assess crop and soil health conditions at different levels of production.
• Improvement in Crop Yeild: Technologies like Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning (AI/ML) algorithms can help in generating real-time actionable insights for improving crop yield, controlling pests, assisting in soil screening, providing actionable data for farmers, and reducing their workload.
• Use of Blockchain Technology: It will be offering tamper-proof and precise data about farms, inventories, quick and secure transactions, and food tracking.

Significance

• Increasing agriculture productivity and lowering production cost,
• Inhibits soil degradation,
• Lessening of chemical application in crop production,
• Promoting effective and efficient use of water resources,
• Uplifting socio-economic statuses of farmers,
• Reducing environmental and ecological impacts,
• Augmenting worker safety.

Challenges in Implementation

• Limited Digital Infrastructure: Rural areas often lack robust digital infrastructure such as internet connectivity and electricity, hindering the adoption of digital technologies by farmers.
• Digital Divide: There’s a significant digital divide between urban and rural areas in India.
• Cost of Technology: Many digital agriculture solutions require huge investments which are unaffordable for smallholder farmers with limited resources.
• Fragmented Agriculture Sector: India’s agriculture sector is fragmented, with a large number of smallholder farmers and diverse crops grown across different regions.
• Developing digital solutions that cater to this diversity is challenging.
• Capacity Building: Training farmers to effectively use digital tools and interpret the data generated is a major challenge.

Government Initiatives

• India Digital Ecosystem of Agriculture (IDEA): It is a framework designed to lay down the architecture for a federated farmers’ database, facilitating innovative agri-focused solutions using emerging technologies to enhance the agricultural ecosystem.
• National e-Governance Plan in Agriculture (NeGP-A): Funds are allocated to states/UTs for projects involving modern technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), Robotics, Drones, Data Analytics, and Blockchain in agriculture.
• National Agriculture Market (e-NAM): A pan-India electronic trading portal connecting Agricultural Produce Market Committee (APMC) mandis to create a unified national market for agricultural commodities, providing digital services to traders, farmers, and mandis.
• PM KISAN Scheme: Direct transfer of funds to eligible farmers’ bank accounts under Direct Benefit Transfer mode, with self-registration available through the Farmers Corner in the portal and a dedicated mobile app for broader access.
• Integrated Scheme for Agricultural Marketing (AGMARKNET): Supports the creation of agricultural marketing infrastructure by providing backend subsidy support and offers services through the AGMARKNET portal for stakeholders including farmers, industry, and policymakers.
• Mobile Apps by ICAR: More than 100 mobile apps developed by ICAR, State Agricultural Universities, and Krishi Vigyan Kendras are offering valuable information to farmers on crops, horticulture, veterinary, dairy, poultry, fisheries, and natural resources management.
• Soil Health Card Scheme: The Soil Health Card Scheme aims to assess the nutrient status of soil and provide customized recommendations for nutrient management to farmers.
• Promotion of Precision Farming: Initiatives like the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) promote precision farming techniques, including drip irrigation and fertigation, which enable more efficient use of fertilizers, including urea, by delivering nutrients directly to plants’ root zones.

Conclusion

• Modernizing the agriculture sector by adding cutting-edge technologies can benefit farmers’ incomes as well as the nation’s food and nutrition security while also being environment- friendly.

The agricultural sector is ready to be taken over by science and technology to boost output and efficiency so that more people can be fed while growing more food on less land, however, this transition has to be inclusive.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The recent violence in Manipur has reignited debate on Centre-State relations and the use of emergency provisions.

About Federal set-up in India

• India is a federation with governments at the Centre and the States.
• The Seventh Schedule to the Indian Constitution distributes the power between the Union and States.
• Under this scheme, it is the domain of the State governments to maintain law and order in their respective States.

Emergency Provisions in the Constitution

• The emergency provisions are provided in Part XVIII of the Constitution.
• Articles 355 and 356 deal primarily with the affairs of government in a State under this part.
• Article 355 imposes a duty on the Centre to protect every State from external aggression and internal disturbance.
• It also specifies that the Centre should ensure that every State government operates according to the Constitution.
• Article 356 allows for the imposition of the President’s rule if a State’s government cannot function in accordance with constitutional provisions.
• Comparison with Other Countries: In the U.S. and Australia, federal functions also include protecting states, but they do not have provisions for removing state governments.

B.R. Ambedkar’s View

• R. Ambedkar explained that Article 355 was designed to ensure that any interference by the Centre in a State’s administration under Article 356 is justified and constitutionally mandated.
• It serves to prevent arbitrary or unauthorized use of Article 356, maintaining a check on federal power and preserving the federal structure of the polity.

Issues and Concerns

• It was hoped that Articles 355 and 356 would never be called into operation and would remain a dead letter
• However, Article 356 was misused several times to dismiss elected state governments with majorities, often for reasons ranging from electoral losses to issues with law and order, undermining constitutional principles and federalism.

Judicial Rulings

• The Supreme Court’s S.R. Bommai case (1994) restricted misuse of Article 356
• it should only be used for constitutional breakdowns, not ordinary law and order issues. The imposition is subject to judicial review.
• The scope of Article 355 has expanded over time through various Supreme Court rulings.
• Initially, in State of Rajasthan Vs Union of India (1977), Article 355 was narrowly interpreted as justifying the use of Article 356.
• However, in later cases like Naga People’s Movement (1998), Sarbananda Sonowal (2005), and H.S. Jain (1997), the Supreme Court broadened the interpretation of Article 355, allowing the Union to take all necessary statutory and constitutional actions to protect states and ensure they adhere to constitutional governance.

Recommendations by Commissions

• The Sarkaria Commission (1987), the National Commission (2002), and the Punchhi Commission (2010) have all stated that
• Article 355 requires the Union to protect states and allows it to take necessary actions to fulfill this duty.
• They have also emphasized that Article 356, which imposes President’s rule, should be used only as a last resort in extreme and urgent situations.

Conclusion 

• The emergency provisions are essential for maintaining constitutional order, their impact on Centre-State relations is significant and complex.
• They necessitate a delicate balance between central authority and state autonomy, and their application must be guided by principles of fairness, necessity, and constitutional integrity.
• As India continues to evolve, ensuring that these provisions are used judiciously and within the framework of federal principles will be key to preserving the democratic and federal fabric of the nation.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The e-commerce sector in India has seen remarkable growth since the pandemic and is driven by increasing internet penetration, smartphone usage, and an expanding middle class.

• Though these technological advancements provide agility, scale and cost advantage they also expose the companies to significant risks and challenges.

Overview of India’s E-commerce Sector

• India’s e-commerce market is projected to reach $150 billion by 2025, up from approximately $75 billion in 2022.
• The sector has been growing at a CAGR of 27%, making India one of the fastest-growing e-commerce markets globally.
• India had over 900 million internet users in 2023, with over 650 million smartphone users, driving e-commerce penetration across urban and rural areas.
• E-commerce accounted for around 7-8% of total retail sales in India in 2022, with expectations of rising to 11% by 2025.

Benefits of India’s E-commerce Sector

Economic Growth:

• Job Creation: The e-commerce sector is expected to create 1.5-2 million direct and indirect jobs by 2025, in areas such as logistics, IT, digital marketing, and customer service.
• MSME Empowerment: Over 1.2 million MSMEs are selling products through various e-commerce platforms, contributing to their growth and providing them with access to new markets. The Government e-Marketplace (GeM) has played a significant role in facilitating public procurement for MSMEs.
• Exports Boost: Platforms like Amazon and Flipkart have enabled Indian sellers to access global markets. Amazon’s “Global Selling” initiative has surpassed $8 billion in cumulative exports as of 2023.

Consumer Benefits:

• Convenience: E-commerce offers consumers convenience, enabling 24/7 shopping and access to a wide range of products. M-commerce (mobile commerce) is particularly driving growth, with over 60% of e-commerce transactions occurring via mobile devices.
• Discounts and Offers: E-commerce platforms are known for offering competitive pricing, discounts, and deals. Festive sales like Flipkart’s Big Billion Days and Amazon’s Great Indian Festival see billions in sales annually (in 2022, festive sales hit $5.7 billion).
• Wide Product Range: Consumers can access a wide variety of products, from groceries to high-end electronics, with platforms like JioMart, Amazon, BigBasket, and Flipkart covering diverse sectors.

Technological Advancements:

• AI and Big Data: E-commerce companies are investing in AI and ML to offer personalized shopping experiences. AI-driven recommendations have improved user experience, increasing customer retention.
• Cloud Infrastructure: Companies have scaled their operations using cloud services, improving site performance and customer satisfaction. Cloud adoption allows for quick scaling during peak shopping periods (e.g., Diwali sales).
• IoT in Supply Chain: Real-time inventory management and smart warehousing are becoming key to optimizing supply chains. IoT devices help monitor stock levels, improving logistics and delivery efficiency.

Rural and Small Town Penetration:

• Rural Expansion: E-commerce platforms have reached rural areas, with Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities contributing 57% of total e-commerce sales. Companies like Meesho are empowering small sellers in rural regions.
• Inclusivity: Government programs such as Common Service Centres (CSCs) allow rural populations to access e-commerce platforms, thus enhancing digital inclusivity.

Boost to Allied Industries:

• Logistics and Warehousing: E-commerce has driven rapid growth in the logistics industry, with the logistics market projected to reach $380 billion by 2025. Companies like Delhivery, Ecom Express, and Blue Dart are crucial players.
• Digital Payments: The adoption of digital payments has increased significantly due to e-commerce. UPI transactions hit a record $180 billion in July 2023, driven by e-commerce and mobile payments.

Government Revenues:

• Increased Tax Revenues: The formalization of the retail sector through e-commerce contributes to higher GST collections. In FY 2022-23, India’s e-commerce GST collection grew by 16%, showcasing the sector’s impact on government revenues.
• Public Procurement: The Government e-Marketplace (GeM) has facilitated over ₹3 lakh crore worth of transactions since its inception, helping streamline government procurement and increase transparency.
• Environmental and Sustainable Practices:
• Sustainable Packaging: E-commerce companies are increasingly adopting sustainable packaging solutions, contributing to environmental sustainability. Flipkart, for instance, has pledged to move to 100% recyclable packaging by 2025.
• Optimized Logistics: Companies are using AI and route optimization technologies to reduce delivery-related carbon footprints. This also helps reduce fuel consumption, making operations more sustainable.

Challenges and Risks in E-commerce Operations

• Data Breaches and Hacks: With a massive influx of users and transactions, e-commerce platforms are highly vulnerable to cyberattacks, including phishing, malware, and hacking. For example, in 2020, BigBasket suffered a data breach where personal data of around 20 million users was compromised.
• Last-Mile Delivery: Delivering to rural and remote areas poses significant logistical challenges, including poor road infrastructure and lack of delivery networks. E-commerce platforms such as Flipkart and Amazon have made significant investments in their delivery networks, but still face hurdles in reaching remote locations.
• Data Privacy and Compliance: Compliance with the upcoming Personal Data Protection Bill and other global data privacy standards like GDPR presents challenges for e-commerce companies, particularly in the way they collect, store, and process data.
• Fraudulent Transactions: Despite advancements in secure payment gateways, e-commerce platforms in India still face issues related to financial fraud and chargebacks. According to a 2021 study, over 52% of Indian businesses have experienced some form of payment-related fraud.
• Fake Products and Counterfeits: The sale of counterfeit goods on online platforms is a significant issue in India. For instance, Amazon has been battling with sellers offering fake products, particularly in the electronics and fashion categories. In 2021, 40% of consumers in a survey reported receiving fake products via e-commerce.
• Risk of Bias in AI/ML Algorithms: While AI and ML algorithms are powerful, they can result in biased recommendations or decisions. This presents a social and ethical dimension to technology use in e-commerce. Regular reviews and ethical guidelines are needed to prevent unintended consequences.

Way Ahead and Conclusion

Strengthen Cybersecurity and Data Privacy:

• E-commerce companies must invest in advanced cybersecurity infrastructure to safeguard customer data, including encryption, multi-factor authentication, and AI-powered threat detection.
• Compliance with global data privacy standards, like GDPR and the upcoming Personal Data Protection Bill, is essential to build consumer trust.

Improve Logistics and Infrastructure:

• Strengthening last-mile delivery, particularly in rural and remote areas, by leveraging technologies such as drones, electric vehicles, and AI-driven logistics optimization.
• Investments in smart warehousing and supply chain automation can streamline operations and reduce delivery times.

Develop Sustainable Practices:

• E-commerce companies should adopt sustainable packaging solutions and reduce their carbon footprint by investing in green technologies such as electric delivery vehicles and eco-friendly packaging materials.
• Implement circular economy practices for better waste management, particularly in return logistics.

Enhance Consumer Protection and Trust:

• Introduce robust quality checks to prevent counterfeit goods from entering the market and enhance after-sales services to improve customer satisfaction.
• Establishing consumer education campaigns to raise awareness about cyber fraud and phishing attacks can also help increase trust.

Focus on Tier-2, Tier-3 Cities, and Rural Markets:

• Expanding the reach of e-commerce to rural India by improving digital literacy, building local infrastructure, and customizing offerings to meet local demand.
• Collaborate with government programs like Common Service Centres (CSCs) and GeM to make digital commerce more accessible in underserved regions.

Regulatory Support and Policy Reforms:

• Harmonizing regulations related to FDI, data privacy, and e-commerce operations to ensure smooth functioning of global and domestic platforms.
• Promote policies that support MSMEs and local sellers, enabling them to thrive in the online marketplace while ensuring a level playing field for all participants.
• Adopt Ethical AI and Machine Learning Practices:
• Ensure the ethical use of AI and ML algorithms by addressing potential biases and improving transparency in recommendation systems.
• Regularly audit algorithms to maintain fairness and prevent discriminatory outcomes.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Anti-corruption ombudsman Lokpal has constituted an inquiry wing for conducting preliminary probe into graft-related offenses committed by public servants.

Inquiry Wing of Lokpal

• To discharge its statutory functions, Section 11 of the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act 2013, obligates the Lokpal to constitute an inquiry wing.
  • The purpose of the wing is conducting preliminary inquiry into any offense punishable under the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988, alleged to have been committed by the specified public servants and functionaries.
• The Lokpal chairperson has been authorized to commence the selection process for appointment of a specified number of suitable persons as officers and staff required to provide logistical assistance in the inquiry wing.

Structure of the Inquiry Wing

• The bench of the Lokpal had approved organogram providing for the staffing pattern and specified number of suitable officers and staff for the inquiry wing.
• According to the organogram, there will be a Director of Inquiry under the Lokpal chairperson.
  • The director will be assisted by three Superintendents of Police (SPs) — SP (general), SP (economic and banking) and SP (cyber).
  • Each SP will be further assisted by inquiry officers and other staff.

Issue with Lokpal

• Operational Delays: Operational efficiency is hampered by delays in appointments. For instance, there was a 21 month delay in appointing a new Lokpal after the post fell vacant in May 2022.
  • Although the Lokpal Act was enacted in 2014, the institution only became functional in 2019, which reflects significant delays in its operationalization.
• Pending Complaints: According to recent data, the Lokpal has a backlog of pending complaints. As of July 2024, 52 graft-related complaints were still awaiting action, indicating that the institution struggles to manage its caseload effectively.
• Jurisdictional Conflicts: Overlapping jurisdictions with other vigilance agencies cause conflicts, creating confusion over authority and responsibility in investigations, which delays action against corrupt officials.
• Prosecution Wing Not Constituted: Despite the provision in the Lokpal Act for setting up a prosecution wing headed by a Director of Prosecution, this has yet to be constituted.
• Political Influence and Interference: The Lokpal’s appointment committee includes members from political parties, which raises concerns about political interference.
• Ambiguity in Selection of Eminent Jurists: The vague criteria for appointing “eminent jurists” and “persons of integrity” can be manipulated to favor political choices.
• No Constitutional Backing: The Lokpal lacks constitutional status, which weakens its institutional authority and durability.

Way Forward

• The Lokpal remains a significant institution in India’s fight against corruption. A powerful and independent Lokpal can play a pivotal role in fostering a culture of transparency and accountability within the Indian government.
• By addressing the challenges and implementing necessary reforms, India can maximize the effectiveness of this crucial anti-corruption institution.
• There is a need to grant greater powers to the Lokpal to independently initiate investigations, enforce prosecutions, and implement punishments to enhance its effectiveness.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Turkey’s bid to join BRICS could be a political move to gain leverage in its stalled EU accession process or signal frustration with the EU.

Benefits:

1. Increases Turkey’s global influence.
2. Provides economic cooperation with emerging markets.
3. Strengthens Turkey’s political leverage in EU negotiations.

Concerns:

1. Strains relations with the EU and NATO.
2. Undermines Turkey’s credibility within Western alliances.
3. Risks diplomatic isolation from Western powers.

India’s stance on expansion:

India welcomed the consensus-based expansion of the BRICS grouping during the 15th BRICS summit in Johannesburg.

• The move strengthens BRICS as a representative of developing countries
• India has proposed creating a BRICS space consortium, investing in skill mapping, technology, and education, and emphasising cooperation for conservation efforts.
• The expansion is aimed at making BRICS future-ready by enhancing cooperation, digital solutions, and development initiatives.

Significance for India:

• The addition of new members to BRICS holds significance for India in terms of expanding partnerships and geopolitical influence, while also raising concerns about potential pro-China dominance within the alliance.

About BRICS:

• BRICS (founded: 2009; HQ: Shanghai) is an acronym for the grouping of the world’s leading emerging economies, namely Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (included in 2010)
• Origin: The term “BRIC” was coined by the British Economist Jim O’Neill in 2001 to describe the four emerging economies of Brazil, Russia, India, and China.
• Share of BRICS: BRICS brings together five of the largest developing countries, representing 41% of the global population, 24% of the global GDP, and 16% of the global trade (By 2028, BRICS is expected to make up 35 per cent of the global economy)
• Chairmanship: The chairmanship of the forum is rotated annually among the members, in accordance with the acronym B-R-I-C-S. South Africa is the chair for 2023.

Initiatives of BRICS        

1. New Development Bank (NDB)
2. Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA)
3. BRICS Payment System
4. Customs Agreements
5. Remote Sensing Satellite

• New Initiative: BRICS is planning to launch its own “new currency” system, a major step towards de-dollarization (reducing dependence on the US dollar for trade)

Challenges for BRICS:

• Economic Divergence; Brazil and Russia have been experiencing economic recessions in recent years, while China and India have sustained high growth rates. South Africa’s economy has been performing poorly, with high levels of unemployment and inequality.
• Political Differences; Russia’s annexation of Crimea and involvement in conflicts in Ukraine and Syria have strained its relations with other BRICS members. China’s territorial claims in the South China Sea have been a source of tension with other BRICS countries that have competing claims in the region.
• Institutional Constraints; The New Development Bank (NDB), established by BRICS in 2014 to provide development financing, has faced challenges in disbursing loans and identifying viable projects. The Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA), a pool of foreign exchange reserves, has not been tested yet.
• Coordination Difficulties; Disagreements over the governance structure of the NDB and the CRA, as well as differing priorities in areas such as trade, investment, and climate change, have made it difficult for BRICS to present a unified front on many issues.
• External Pressures; The rise of protectionism, nationalism, and populism in some advanced economies has posed challenges for BRICS in terms of trade, investment, and access to capital.

Way forward for BRICS:

• Reform of Multilateral Institutions: BRICS countries could jointly advocate for the reform of the UN Security Council, calling for the inclusion of more developing countries as permanent members.
• Resolve to Combat Terrorism: BRICS countries could share best practices and intelligence to combat terrorism, as well as work together to cut off funding and resources for terrorist groups.
• Promoting Technological and Digital Solutions for the SDGs: BRICS countries could share their experiences in adopting and implementing digital solutions in these sectors
• Expanding People-to-People Cooperation: BRICS countries could organize joint cultural events and exhibitions, establish more student exchange programs and scholarships, and encourage more tourism and business visits to each other’s countries.

Conclusion:

• While BRICS membership might strengthen Turkey’s global presence, it could strain relations with the EU, which expects alignment with its values and foreign policy. Turkey’s balancing act between the West and non-Western alliances could backfire, further diminishing its credibility within transatlantic circles. However, Turkey remains crucial due to its strategic location, making its foreign policy a complex balancing act.