General Studies Paper -2

Context: The India-Russia relationship has been a cornerstone of international diplomacy for decades, and its impact is set to grow even more significant in upcoming years.

• However, the evolving geopolitical landscape and the influence of Western countries have had a significant impact on this partnership.

About the India-Russia Relationship

• The India-Russia relationship dates back to the Cold War era, with both countries collaborating on various fronts, including defense, technology, and space exploration.
• It has evolved significantly since the signing of the Declaration on the India-Russia Strategic Partnership in October 2000, and was elevated to the level of Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership during Russian President Vladimir Putin’s visit to India in December 2010.

Key Areas of Cooperation That Will Shape the World in Upcoming Years

• Strategic Partnership: The India-Russia relationship is built on mutual respect and trust, with both countries actively cooperating in various international organizations such as the United Nations, BRICS, and SCO.
  • Russia has been a steadfast supporter of India’s aspiration to become a permanent member of the UN Security Council.
  • The two nations have held 21 Annual Summits since 2000, with the most recent one held in Moscow in July 2024.
• Political and Security Cooperation: The two countries engage in regular high-level dialogues, including the 2+2 Dialogue involving their Foreign and Defence Ministers.
  • These dialogues ensure regular interaction and follow-up on cooperation activities.
• Economic Ties: India and Russia have strong economic ties, with significant cooperation in energy, engineering, agriculture, and high technology.
  • Both countries have set ambitious targets to boost bilateral trade to over $100 billion by 2030.
  • Russia is one of the largest suppliers of oil and gas to India, and they are exploring new avenues for trade and investment. The focus on sectors such as energy, pharmaceuticals, and technology will drive economic growth and create job opportunities in both nations.
  • This economic partnership will encourage other countries to engage more deeply with India and Russia.
• Military-Technical Cooperation: Russia supplies India with modern weapons and military equipment and assists in training Indian military specialists.
  • The induction of advanced warships like the INS Tushil and the ongoing development of the BrahMos Supersonic Cruise Missile System highlight the depth of this cooperation.
  • Joint exercises and exchange of experience further strengthen the defense potential of both countries.
  • It not only strengthens India’s defence capabilities but also contributes to regional stability and security.
• Technological Innovation: India and Russia are collaborating on cutting-edge technologies, including quantum computing, cyber-physical systems, and biotechnology.
  • These joint efforts will lead to breakthrough innovations that can address global challenges such as climate change, healthcare, and sustainable development.
  • The BioE3 Policy 2024 is a prime example of this collaboration, aiming to leverage biotechnology for economic, environmental, and employment benefits.
• Geopolitical Influence: As both countries navigate complex international relations, their partnership will provide a counterbalance to other global powers.
  • This influence will be particularly significant in regions such as South Asia and the Indo-Pacific, where strategic interests converge.
• Cultural and People-to-People Ties: Both nations have a rich cultural heritage and regularly organize joint cultural events such as festivals, exhibitions, and concerts.
  • Educational programs, tourism, and cultural festivals will foster mutual understanding and goodwill.
  • These ties will not only enhance bilateral relations but also contribute to global cultural diversity and cooperation.

Balancing Act of India: Western Influences on India-Russia Relationship

• Diplomatic Balancing: While India seeks to strengthen its ties with Western countries, it also values its long-standing relationship with Russia.
  • It allows India to maintain its strategic autonomy and pursue its national interests without alienating either side.
• Geopolitical Dynamics: The West’s stance on Russia, especially following the annexation of Crimea in 2014 and the invasion of Ukraine in 2022, has created a complex geopolitical environment.
  • While many Western countries have imposed sanctions on Russia, India has maintained a neutral position.
  • It has allowed India to continue its energy trade and defense cooperation with Russia, despite Western pressure.
• Defense Cooperation: India’s defense ties with the West have deepened in recent years, with increased cooperation with NATO partners and the United States.
  • It has led to a diversification of India’s defense procurement, reducing its dependence on Russian military equipment.
  • However, Russia remains a significant supplier of arms to India, and the two countries continue to collaborate on defense projects.
• Economic Relations: Western sanctions on Russia have impacted global trade, but India has managed to navigate these challenges by increasing its trade with Russia.
  • India’s purchase of discounted Russian crude oil and exports of food and pharmaceuticals to Russia have strengthened bilateral trade.
  • This trade boom has helped India maintain its energy security and economic stability.

Conclusion

• The India-Russia relationship is poised to have a profound impact on the world in upcoming years, shaping strategic, economic, technological, geopolitical, and cultural landscapes.
• As India and Russia continue to deepen their partnership, the global community will witness the benefits of this enduring and expanding collaboration.
• India’s growing ties with the United States and other Western countries may lead to further diversification of its defense and economic partnerships.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Global Estimates on International Migrant Workers report released  by the International Labour Organization (ILO).

 Major Findings

• Labor Force: In 2022, international migrants made up 4.7% of the global labor force, totaling 167.7 million, an increase of over 30 million since 2013.
• Of the 167.7 million migrants, 102.7 million were men and 64.9 million were women.
• Regional Trends: Europe and Central Asia hosted 34.5% of migrant workers (57.8 million).
  • The share of migrants in Northern, Southern, and Western Europe increased from 22.5% in 2013 to 23.3% in 2022, while other regions saw slight declines.
  • More than 68% of migrants were in high-income countries, primarily in Northern, Southern, and Western Europe; North America; and the Arab States.
• Sector Employment:4% of migrant workers were employed in the services sector, particularly in care and domestic work, with 30% of migrant women and 12.4% of migrant men in this sector.
• Comparisons to non-migrants:2% of non-migrant women and 6.2% of non-migrant men were employed in care and domestic work.

Issues and Concerns

• Higher Unemployment Rates: Migrants faced a higher unemployment rate (7.2%) than non-migrants (5.2%), with women more affected.
• Gender Disparities in Employment: Migrant women had an employment-to-population ratio of 48.1%, compared to 73% for migrant men.
• Barriers to Employment: Gender disparities may be driven by factors like language barriers, unrecognized qualifications, discrimination, limited childcare options, and gender-based expectations.

Suggestions

• Migrant workers are crucial in addressing global labour shortages and contributing to economic growth.
• Protecting their rights and ensuring access to decent work is both a moral and economic necessity.
• The report calls for targeted policies to improve access to decent work and protect migrant workers.
• Ensuring equitable access to employment opportunities is vital for sustainable development and inclusive labour markets.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: India has been making several efforts through key interventions in the field of Science and Technology towards achieving ‘Viksit Bharat’ 2047 Goal.

India’s Vision 2047: Viksit Bharat

• India’s vision for 2047, known as ‘Viksit Bharat’ (Developed India), aims to transform the nation into a developed economy by the time it celebrates its 100th anniversary of its independence.
• Achieving this ambitious goal requires comprehensive efforts across various sectors, with science and technology playing a pivotal role.

Efforts Made in Science & Technology

• High-Stakes Mission-Driven Initiatives like National Quantum Mission and the National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems, focussing on positioning India as a global leader in emerging technologies.
• Strategic Policy Measures: These include the Geospatial Policy 2022, the Space Policy 2023, and the BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment, and Employment) Policy 2024.
  • These policies aim to enhance India’s technological capabilities and promote sustainable development.
• Global Leadership in Science and Technology: India ranks 3rd in terms of number of research publications as per Science & Engineering Indicators 2024 published by National Science Foundation (NSF), USA.
  • India ranks 4th in the number of PhD degrees awarded in Science and Engineering as per Science & Engineering Indicators 2024 published by National Science Foundation (NSF), USA.
  • India is ranked at 6th position both in terms of resident and non-resident patent filing activity from respective countries as per WIPO Report, 2023.
• Gross Expenditure on R&D (GERD) in India: GERD in India has been consistently increasing over the years and has more than doubled from 2009-10 to 2020-21.
  • As per DST R&D Statistics 2022-23, India occupies 7th position in terms of GERD (in billion current PPP$) ahead of United Kingdom, Russia, Brazil, Italy, Canada, Spain, Australia, etc
  • Gender participation in R&D has increased to 18.6% (2021) from 14.3 % (2009) as per DST R&D Statistics, 2022-23.
  • The number of researchers per million population has increased to 262 in 2020 as compared to 164 in 2009 as per DST R&D Statistics, 2022-23.
• Startup Culture and Innovation Ecosystem: India has witnessed a significant jump in its Global Innovation Index (GII) ranking from 81st in the year 2015 to 39th in 2024 among 133 economies of the world.
  • India also ranked 3rd in terms of the total number of startups in 2024 as per DPIIT.
• Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF): It was established through the ANRF Act 2023 that aims to drive a multi-phased roadmap for scientific breakthroughs and cross-sectoral collaboration, providing competitive, peer-reviewed grants to optimize resource allocation for high-impact research.
• Sectoral Group of Secretaries (SGoS) on Technology: It has held detailed discussions to identify key areas for intervention.
  • These discussions have resulted in strategic actions to strengthen research and innovation in areas such as Quantum Technologies, Cyber-Physical Systems, and Bio Manufacturing.

Challenges and Way Forward

• Despite these efforts, challenges such as economic inequalities, infrastructure gaps, policy uncertainty, concerns related to environment, skill development, rural youth and global risks remain.
• Addressing these challenges requires consistent fiscal and monetary policies, skill development, boosting exports, rural development, and scaling up renewable energy capacity.

General Studies Paper -3

Context

• Pre-COVID Economic Scenario:
  • Before the COVID-19 pandemic, the Indian economy faced severe structural headwinds.
  • GDP growth fell from 8.2% in March 2018 to 3.1% in March 2020.
  • Growth decline occurred continuously for eight quarters, indicating systemic issues.
• Supply-Side Measures:
  • To address this slowdown, the government implemented corporate tax cuts in late 2019, leading to a revenue loss of ₹5 lakh crore.
  • The intent was to increase corporate profits, driving investments, employment, incomes, and consumption through a beneficial cycle.
• Pandemic Disruption:
  • Before these measures took effect, the COVID-19 pandemic hit, further derailing growth.
  • The RBI’s monetary policy was critical in rescuing the economy.

Post-Pandemic Economic Rebound and Recent Developments

• Initial Recovery:
  • Post-pandemic, the economy witnessed a burst of demand, termed as “revenge consumption”, fueled by pent-up savings.
  • Monetary policy remained accommodative, enabling production to meet rising demand.
• Recent Slowdown (2024-25):
  • Second-quarter GDP growth fell to 5.4%, the lowest in seven quarters, compared to 8.1% a year ago.
  • Manufacturing growth dropped to 2.2%, and export growth stagnated at 2.8%.
• Macroeconomic Indicators:
  • Private Consumption: Growth fell to 6% in Q2 FY24.
  • Government Consumption: Rose marginally to 4.4% but remains low compared to previous years.
  • Gross Fixed Capital Formation: Growth declined to 5.4% in Q2 from double digits in earlier years.
• Inflation: Consumer Price Index (CPI) remains above 6%, limiting RBI’s scope for monetary intervention.
• Foreign Trade: Exports grew by 2.8%, while imports contracted by (-)2.9%, reflecting a weak global demand environment.

Structural Challenges in India’s Economic Policy

• Corporate-Oriented Policy Approach:
• Corporate Tax Cuts (2019): Reduction in tax rates aimed to stimulate investments but resulted in significant revenue loss.
  • Corporate profits quadrupled in four years, but benefits did not trickle down to workers.
  • Banks suffered massive haircuts under the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC), reducing debt recovery to 30% of the original loan amount.
• Workforce Issues:
  • Increased informalisation and low-wage growth have suppressed demand.
  • Wages stagnated while corporate profits rose, as highlighted by the Chief Economic Adviser.
• Outward Investments:
  • India’s outward direct investment (ODI) reached $8.9 billion (Apr-Sep 2024), reflecting business expansions abroad.
  • Significant investments were directed to Singapore ($2.8 billion), the US ($1.1 billion), and the Netherlands ($809 million).

Judicial Insights and Economic Implications

• Vishaka vs. State of Rajasthan (1997):
  • Laid the groundwork for workplace reforms in India, showcasing the importance of institutional mechanisms.
• Kerala HC Judgment (2022):
  • Political parties were excluded from being categorized as workplaces, highlighting ambiguities in governance definitions.
• Research Insights:
  • Studies (e.g., David Hope and Julian Limberg, 2020) show that tax cuts for the wealthy across OECD nations did not significantly impact employment or growth but widened inequalities.
  • This research serves as a cautionary tale for relying heavily on supply-side policies.

Balancing Supply-Side and Demand-Side Measures

• Need for Demand Stimulus:
  • The current economic slowdown demands a demand-side policy approach to complement supply-side measures.
  • Stimulating consumption through higher wages and employment growth is essential to revive demand.
• Key Suggestions:
  • Corporate Profits to Wages: Share corporate profits with workers to boost disposable income and demand.
  • Support Informal Sector: Address creeping informalisation and wage stagnation.
  • Fiscal Policy Measures: Introduce measures like targeted transfers, increased government expenditure, and support for MSMEs.
  • Balance Investments: Encourage domestic investments alongside foreign investments to create employment opportunities.

Global Context and Trade Concerns

• Global Economic Outlook:
  • The IMF describes the global economic scenario as “underwhelming,” which could affect India’s exports and foreign trade.
  • Sluggish global demand further reduces growth prospects in the export sector.
• Strategic Trade Policies:
  • Promote domestic manufacturing and reduce import dependency.
  • Boost trade relations with emerging markets to counter global economic uncertainties.

Way Forward

• Shift Towards Inclusive Growth:
  • Policies must focus on employment generation and equitable income distribution.
  • Higher public expenditure in sectors like education, healthcare, and rural infrastructure.
• Support for MSMEs:
  • MSMEs serve as significant employment generators and drivers of local demand. Policy interventions must prioritize their revival.
• Balanced Fiscal Approach:
  • While corporate-oriented policies are essential for investments, demand-side measures like wage growth and job creation cannot be ignored.
• Address Workforce Challenges:
  • Focus on formalizing employment, ensuring job security, and enhancing skill development.
• Monetary-Fiscal Coordination:
  • With inflation limiting RBI’s action, fiscal policy must take the lead in stimulating demand

Conclusion

• India’s economic slowdown stems from structural weaknesses exacerbated by a supply-oriented policy approach.
• Balancing supply-side incentives with demand-side stimulus is critical to achieving inclusive and sustainable growth. As global trade remains sluggish, domestic consumption and investments must become the pillars of India’s economic revival.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Universal Health Coverage (UHC) is a critical goal for India, however, achieving UHC presents a complex array of challenges due to the diverse and multifaceted nature of the country’s healthcare landscape.

About Universal health coverage (UHC)

• It is a global health objective that aims to ensure all people have access to the health services they need without suffering financial hardship.
• It includes a full range of essential health services, from health promotion and prevention to treatment, rehabilitation, and palliative care.
• Achieving UHC is a critical component of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs-3) which focuses on ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all at all ages.

Key Components of UHC

• Availability: Ensuring that health services are available in sufficient quantity.
• Accessibility: Making sure that health services are accessible to everyone, regardless of their location or socio-economic status.
• Affordability: Providing health services without causing financial hardship.
• Quality: Ensuring that health services are of high quality and meet the needs of the population.

Current State of UHC in India

• The National Health Policy 2017 articulates the goal of achieving the highest possible level of health and well-being for all citizens.
  • Despite this, disparities in healthcare access and quality persist across different states and regions.
• For instance, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu spend ₹3,829, ₹2,590, and ₹2,039 per capita respectively, while Uttar Pradesh and Bihar spend only ₹951 and ₹
  • It highlights the need for tailored UHC plans that consider the unique realities of each state.

Key Challenges in Achieving UHC in India

• Diverse Health Systems: India’s health systems vary widely across states, reflecting different levels of development and healthcare infrastructure.
  • For instance, states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu have relatively advanced healthcare systems, while states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh lag behind in terms of healthcare expenditure and outcomes.
• Inequities in Health Outcomes: States with similar population sizes and health indicators can have vastly different healthcare outcomes. For example, teenage pregnancy rates and fertility rates vary significantly, impacting the overall health indicators.
  • For instance, West Bengal, despite having a low fertility rate, has one of the highest teenage pregnancy rates in the country.
• High Out-of-Pocket Expenditure: In states like West Bengal (remains high at 67%) and Andhra Pradesh, out-of-pocket expenses account for a significant portion of total health expenditure, indicating that increased government spending alone is not sufficient.
• Systemic Challenges: The coexistence of multiple health system types within the same state can complicate the implementation of a unified UHC plan.
  • Additionally, the varying levels of healthcare infrastructure and workforce across states further complicate efforts to provide equitable healthcare access.
• Infrastructure Gaps: India faces significant healthcare infrastructure deficits, particularly in rural areas.
  • Many regions lack adequate healthcare facilities, medical equipment, and essential medicines.
  • It is more pronounced in states with lower healthcare spending.
• Workforce Shortages: There is a critical shortage of healthcare professionals, including doctors, nurses, and allied health workers.
  • It is exacerbated by uneven distribution, with rural and remote areas being the most affected.
• Policy and Governance Issues: Effective implementation of UHC requires robust policy frameworks and governance structures.
  • However, challenges such as bureaucratic inefficiencies, lack of coordination between different levels of government, and corruption can hinder progress.

Related Government Initiatives Achieving UHC in India

• Ayushman Bharat: It is aimed at providing health coverage to over 500 million people. It includes two major components:
• Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs): These centres aim to provide comprehensive primary healthcare services, including preventive, promotive, rehabilitative, and curative care.
• Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY): It provides health insurance coverage of up to ₹5 lakh per family per year for secondary and tertiary care hospitalization.
• Pradhan Mantri Ayushman Bharat Health Infrastructure Mission (PM-ABHIM): Launched to strengthen primary, secondary, and tertiary healthcare systems, this mission aims to develop capacities to detect and cure new and emerging diseases.
• National Health Mission (NHM): It includes the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) and the National Urban Health Mission (NUHM), which aims to provide equitable, affordable, and quality healthcare services.
• These missions focus on reducing maternal and child mortality, controlling communicable and non-communicable diseases, and strengthening healthcare infrastructure.
• National Digital Health Mission (NDHM): It aims to create a digital health ecosystem by providing a unique health ID to every citizen, enabling seamless access to health records and services.
• Increased Public Health Expenditure: The government aims to increase public health expenditure to 2.5% of GDP, as outlined in the National Health Policy 2017.

Path Forward

• Strengthening Primary Healthcare: Investing in primary healthcare to ensure comprehensive and continuous care for all individuals.
• Reducing Out-of-Pocket Expenditure: Implementing policies to reduce the financial burden on individuals, such as expanding insurance coverage and subsidizing healthcare costs.
• Addressing Regional Disparities: Tailoring UHC plans to the specific needs of different states, considering their unique healthcare challenges and resource availability.

Conclusion

• Achieving universal health coverage in India requires a multifaceted approach that considers the diverse realities of each state.
• It involves not only increasing government health expenditure but also addressing systemic issues and health inequities.
• A tailored, region-specific strategy is essential to overcome the challenges and ensure that all Indians have access to quality healthcare without financial hardship.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: As the tourism sector in India continues to grow, it is crucial to ensure that this growth is sustainable, balancing economic benefits with environmental and social responsibilities.

About Sustainable Tourism

Tourism is a vital pillar of economic growth and employment generation all across the world, offering vast potential for sustainable livelihoods while promoting India’s rich cultural and natural heritage.

• Sustainable tourism is a vital aspect of India’s tourism strategy, aiming to balance the economic benefits of tourism with environmental and social responsibilities.
• The Union Ministry of Tourism has been actively promoting sustainable tourism practices to ensure that tourism development is inclusive, resilient, and environmentally friendly.

Current Landscape

• According to the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC), tourism’s contribution to India’s GDP in 2024 is expected to be 6.8%, amounting to $256.1 billion.
  • It plays a crucial role in employment, providing jobs for 45.39 million people, or 9.2% of the Indian workforce.
  • The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MOSPI) reports that Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTAs) reached 10.93 million in 2019, generating $30 billion in foreign exchange earnings, which bolsters India’s foreign reserves.
• Globally, tourism employs 348 million people, equating to 10.4% of global employment.
  • It accounts for 10% of the world’s GDP of $ 104 trillion in 2023.

Future Prospects

• The market is expected to generate billions in revenue, with a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 9.62% from 2024 to 2028.
• By 2030, the sector is anticipated to contribute USD 250 billion to the GDP and create employment for 137 million people.

Benefits of Sustainable Tourism

• Economic Growth: Sustainable tourism can drive economic growth by creating jobs and supporting local businesses.
• Environmental Protection: By promoting eco-friendly practices, sustainable tourism helps in conserving natural resources and reducing pollution.
• Social Inclusion: Sustainable tourism initiatives often focus on empowering local communities and preserving cultural heritage.
• Community Participation: Involving local communities in tourism planning and development ensures that they benefit from tourism activities and helps preserve their cultural and natural heritage.
  • Initiatives such as homestays, community-based tourism, and eco-tourism projects empower local communities and provide them with sustainable livelihoods.

Challenges

• Environmental Degradation: Unchecked expansion and a focus on mass tourism have led to environmental degradation, including pollution, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and cultural erosion.
• Overtourism: Popular tourist destinations can become overcrowded, leading to strain on local infrastructure and resources.
• Lack of Awareness: There is a need for greater awareness and education about sustainable tourism practices among tourists and stakeholders.

Government Initiatives and Strategies

• National Strategy for Sustainable Tourism (2022): It aims to mainstream sustainability in the tourism sector. It focuses on seven strategic pillars like Promoting Environmental Sustainability; Protecting Biodiversity; Promoting Economic Sustainability; Promoting Socio-Cultural Sustainability; Certification of Sustainable Tourism; Information, Education, and Communication (IEC) and Capacity Building; and Governance.
• Travel for LiFE Program: Launched under the Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment), this program encourages tourists and tourism businesses to adopt sustainable practices.
  • It focuses on themes such as saving energy, reducing waste, and empowering local communities.
  • The goal is to ensure that tourism contributes positively to the economy while safeguarding the environment and benefiting local communities.
• G20 Goa Roadmap for Tourism: It outlines a blueprint for sustainable global tourism. It emphasizes the role of tourism in economic growth, environmental stewardship, and social inclusion.
• Swadesh Darshan 2.0: It focuses on developing sustainable and responsible tourist destinations. It aims to create destinations that are environmentally sustainable, economically viable, and socially inclusive.

Sustainable Practices

• The Zero Waste Tourism Model in Sikkim is an example of how communities can lead the way in sustainability.
• Kerala’s Responsible Tourism Mission is another prime example, where community-driven initiatives like PEPPER and STREET create employment while preserving cultural heritage.

International Efforts

• Globally, sustainable tourism emerged to mitigate the negative impacts of mass tourism. As defined by the Cape Town Declaration (2002) and Magna Carta London (2020), sustainable tourism promotes responsible travel that benefits both people and the planet.
• Policy and Framework Development: Organizations like the World Economic Forum and the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) are emphasizing the importance of sustainable tourism in their reports and frameworks.
  • These efforts focus on balancing economic growth with environmental protection and social equity.
• Economic Recovery and Growth: The International Monetary Fund (IMF) highlights tourism as a critical driver of economic recovery, especially in countries where tourism is a significant part of the GDP.
  • The sector’s recovery is linked to increased air connectivity and pent-up demand.
• Innovation and Development: The global tourism sector is leveraging digital innovation and sustainable development practices to enhance resilience and sustainability.
  • It includes adopting new technologies and promoting eco-friendly travel options.
• Community and Environmental Impact: There is a growing focus on minimizing the negative impacts of tourism on local communities and the environment.
  • It includes initiatives to reduce carbon footprints, manage overcrowding, and support local economies.

Conclusion and Way Ahead

• India’s path to sustainable tourism is a journey that requires the collective efforts of the government, industry stakeholders, and local communities.
• By adopting sustainable practices, promoting community participation, and addressing the challenges, India can ensure that its tourism sector continues to thrive while preserving its rich cultural and natural heritage for future generations.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: India’s e-waste generation increased by 73% in five years, from 1.01 million metric tonnes (MT) in 2019-20 to 1.751 million MT in 2023-24.

What is E-waste?

• It consists of discarded electronic and electrical devices that have reached the end of their lifespan or become obsolete due to rapid technological changes, including computers, phones, TVs, and other equipment.

Reasons for Surge

• The increasing adoption of electronic products, fueled by technological advancements and affordable internet access, has greatly improved living standards worldwide.
  • However, this digital revolution has also led to a significant rise in electronic waste (e-waste).
• The sharpest rise in e-waste occurred between 2019-20 and 2020-21, linked to the demand for electronic devices due to work-from-home and remote learning during the pandemic.

Concerns and Challenges

• Environmental and Health Concerns: E-waste contains toxic substances like arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury, which can harm the environment and human health if not properly managed.
• Lack of State-Level Data: There is no state-wise data on e-waste generation; instead, national-level figures are estimated from sales data and average lifespan of electronic items.
• Challenges in Recycling: The low recycling rate is attributed to inefficiencies in engaging stakeholders.
• Lack of Tax Incentives: The government has not implemented a tax credit system to encourage manufacturers to design recyclable, sustainable electronics.
• Informal Sector: The large, unregulated informal sector complicates tracking and adhering to environmental norms.
• Data Privacy Concerns: Many consumers are hesitant to recycle devices due to fears about personal data security.

Government Efforts:

• The E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022, introduced Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) to ensure producers are responsible for recycling and disposal through authorised recyclers.
• EPR Mechanism: Producers are assigned annual recycling targets based on e-waste generation and product sales. They must purchase EPR certificates from registered recyclers to meet these targets.

Role of Circular Economy

• A circular economy seeks to reuse electronic components rather than simply salvaging them.
  • This model emphasizes that every material is a resource, not waste.
  • India needs policies to encourage manufacturers to reuse old components, similar to China’s goal of using 35% secondary raw materials by 2030.

What more needs to be done ?

• E-waste is a global crisis that needs equitable, cross-border e-waste management strategies to mitigate the “environmental and health damage” caused when high-income countries export their e-waste to low-income regions.
• Public institutions (schools, government offices) are considered bulk consumers and must ensure their e-waste is handled by registered recyclers.
• There is a call for public-private partnerships for setting up reverse supply chains to collect and recycle devices.
• And Focusing on a circular economy for e-waste is critical, especially with the shrinking supply of new components. Formalizing the recycling process and extracting full value from electronics will require capital and better resource clustering.
  • The informal sector’s role in collection and disposal needs to be integrated with formal systems.

General Studies Paper -2

India Sri Lankan Take up Regional Security Issues

Context: Sri Lankan President Anura Kumara Dissanayake met PM Modi during his first foreign visit after assuming office.

Key Outcomes of the Meeting

• Strategic and Defence Cooperation: Sri Lanka assured India that its territory would not be used for activities inimical to India’s interests, ensuring regional stability.
  • This assurance reflects Sri Lanka’s balancing act amid China’s growing presence in the region.
• Capacity Building: India will provide focused training for 1,500 Sri Lankan civil servants over the next five years.
  • There will be collaboration on capacity building through knowledge-sharing platforms like India’s Aadhaar, PM Gati Shakti, and DigiLocker.
• Energy Development: The leaders agreed to take steps towards the implementation of the solar power project in Sampur.
  • Cooperation amongst India, Sri Lanka and UAE to implement a multi-product pipeline from India to Sri Lanka for supply of affordable and reliable energy.
• People-Centric Digitization: Agreement to fast-track the implementation of the Sri Lanka Unique Digital Identity (SLUDI) project, modeled after India’s Aadhaar.
  • Collaboration to roll out Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) in Sri Lanka to improve government service delivery and digital transactions.

India and Sri Lanka Relations

• Trade Relations: India-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreement (ISFTA) in 2000 contributed significantly towards the expansion of trade between the two countries.
  • India has traditionally been among Sri Lanka’s largest trade partners and Sri Lanka remains among the largest trade partners of India in the SAARC.
  • India is also one of the largest contributors to Foreign Direct Investment in Sri Lanka.
• Cultural relations: The Cultural Cooperation Agreement signed in 1977 forms the basis for periodic Cultural Exchange Programmes between the two countries.
• Tourism: India has traditionally been Sri Lanka’s top inbound tourism market, followed by China.
  • As per latest data from the Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority, India is the largest source for tourists in 2023.
• Maritime Security and Defence Cooperation: In 2011, a decision was taken to establish the Colombo Security Conclave which aims to further promote maritime security in the Indian Ocean Region.
  • India and Sri Lanka conduct a joint Military exercise named ‘Mitra Shakti’, Trilateral Maritime Exercise “Dosti”, and a Naval exercise named SLINEX.
• Connectivity Projects: Recently, the two sides adopted a vision document to enhance maritime, energy and people to people connectivity.
  • There are plans to develop ports and logistics infrastructure at Colombo, Trincomalee, and Kankesanthurai to consolidate regional logistics and shipping.
  • There are plans to develop a land bridge to provide India land access to the ports of Trincomalee and Colombo.
• Multilateral Forum Collaboration: India and Sri Lanka are member nations of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme, South Asian Economic Union and BIMSTEC, working to enhance cultural and commercial ties.

Areas of Concern

• The Fishermen Issue: Sri Lanka’s proximity to Indian territorial waters has often blurred the line for fishermen on both sides in pursuit of fish stock.
• Indian Ocean Geopolitics: In recent years, subtle geo-political and strategic competition in the IOR between the US, China and India has been recognised by Sri Lanka as a possible threat to its security interest in the region.
• Rise of China: China’s increasing strategic investments in vital maritime ports in the IOR has been an area of concern.
  • The fear of Indian dominance over the territory of Sri Lanka among the Sri Lankans has been a reality since its independence.

Way Ahead

• India’s proactive engagement with Sri Lanka highlights its role as a reliable partner in ensuring regional security and economic stability.
• The reaffirmed assurance from Sri Lanka to safeguard India’s security interests is a crucial step in countering external influences in the Indian Ocean Region.

General Studies Paper -1

Context: The India Meteorological Department expects a La Niña to set in by late 2024 or early 2025, plus a milder winter due to this delay.

Emergence of La Nina

• Historically, the La Niña has usually formed during the monsoon or the pre-monsoon period, and it has formed only twice between October and December since 1950.
• Predicting La Nina: The oceanic Niño index (ONI) compares the three-month average sea surface temperatures in the East-Central Tropical Pacific with the 30-year average.
  • When the difference between the two is 0.5º C or higher, it is an El Niño, and when it is –0.5º C or lower, it is a La Niña.
• Currently, it is around –0.3º C. To be classified as a full-fledged La Niña or El Niño, ONI values need to exceed the thresholds at least five times consecutively.

What is La Nina?

• It means Little Girl in Spanish. La Niña is also sometimes called El Viejo, anti-El Niño, or simply “a cold event.”
• The trade winds become stronger than usual, pushing more warmer waters towards the Indonesian coast, and making the eastern Pacific Ocean colder than normal.
• Impact on Weather Patterns:
• North America: La Niña is often associated with colder winters in the northern U.S. and Canada and warmer, drier conditions in the southern U.S. (such as in the southwestern states).
• South America: La Niña often causes droughts in countries like Peru and Ecuador while bringing more rain to Brazil.
• Asia and Oceania: La Niña tends to bring increased rainfall and a higher risk of flooding to countries like Indonesia, Australia, and parts of Southeast Asia.

Impact on India

• More rainfall in most regions, leading to a stronger monsoon.
• Increased risk of flooding and waterlogging in many parts of the country.
• Cooler temperatures during the post-monsoon and winter months.
• More cyclones in the Indian Ocean, increasing risks for coastal areas.
• Possible agricultural disruptions due to heavy rainfall, floods, and delayed harvesting.

Conclusion

• Climate change may increase the frequency and intensity of both La Niña and El Niño events, as rising sea and land temperatures disrupt the Pacific’s balance.
• Thus it would be a welcome development if a La Niña forms now or early next year and continues until the monsoon season. This would mean a less intense summer and more rains for India.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The Union government launched the ‘Jalvahak’ scheme to incentivise cargo movement via inland waterways, across National Waterways 1 (Ganga), 2 (Brahmaputra), and 16 (Barak river).

About Jalvahak scheme

• Cargo Promotion and Incentives: The scheme offers direct incentives to cargo owners for transporting goods via inland waterways for distances exceeding 300 km.
  • Reimbursement of up to 35% of total operating expenditure incurred during cargo transportation is provided.
• Implementing Agencies: The scheme is a joint effort of the Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) and the Inland & Coastal Shipping Limited (ICSL).
• Private participation: Cargo owners are encouraged to hire vessels owned or operated by organisations outside IWAI or ICSL to boost private participation in inland waterways transportation.
• Duration: The scheme is initially valid for a period of three years.

Current Status of Inland Waterways in India

• India has an extensive inland waterways network of 20,236 km, comprising 17,980 km of rivers and 2,256 km of canals suitable for mechanised crafts.
• India currently has 111 National Waterways (NWs), as declared under the National Waterways Act, 2016.
• Cargo transported on national waterways increased from 18.07 Million Metric Tonnes (MT) in 2013-14 to 132.89 Million MT in 2023-24 — a growth of over 700%.
• India aims to achieve 200 Million MT of cargo movement via waterways by 2030 and 500 Million MT by 2047.

Significance of the Inland Waterways

• Reducing Logistics Costs: Logistics costs in India account for 14% of GDP, significantly higher than the global average of 8-10%.
• Decongestion: Promoting inland waterways will help alleviate congestion and reduce the burden on these critical transport networks.
• Eco-Friendly Transport: Reduced fuel consumption and emissions align with India’s commitment to sustainable development goals (SDGs) and its climate action targets.
• Economic Benefits: Increased cargo movement via inland waterways will bolster trade and commerce, especially in regions adjoining National Waterways.

Challenges in Boosting Inland Waterways

• Infrastructure Deficiencies: Limited availability of modern terminals, jetties, and navigational aids hampers seamless cargo transportation.
• Depth and Navigability Issues: Many river stretches suffer from seasonal fluctuations, affecting their navigability.
• Competition from Road and Rail: Despite incentives, the established dominance of road and rail transport limits the shift towards waterways.
• Regional Disparities: Inland waterways infrastructure is largely concentrated in certain regions, leaving others underdeveloped.

Government Initiatives

• Jal Marg Vikas Project (JMVP): Developing NW-1 with modern infrastructure and terminals.
• Sagarmala Project: Integration of inland waterways with coastal shipping and ports.
• Freight Village Development: Establishing logistic hubs near key waterways to boost multimodal transport.

Way Ahead

• Encouraging greater participation of private players in vessel operations and cargo handling.
• Integration of inland waterways with railways, roads, and coastal shipping to ensure seamless transportation.

Concluding remarks

• India’s inland waterways hold immense potential to transform the country’s logistics landscape.
• The Jalvahak scheme is a crucial step in this direction, offering incentives to reduce costs and increase cargo movement.