Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

India’s SARAS radio telescope provides astronomers clues to the nature of Universe’s first stars and galaxies.

• In a first-of-its-kind work, using data from SARAS 3, researchers from the Raman Research Institute (RRI), Bengaluru, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) in Australia, along with collaborators at the University of Cambridge and the University of Tel-Aviv, estimated the energy output, luminosity, and masses of the first generation of galaxies that are bright in radio wavelengths.
• Scientists have determined properties of radio luminous galaxies formed just 200 million years post the Big Bang, a period known as the Cosmic Dawn thus providing an insight to the properties of the earliest radio loud galaxies that are usually powered by supermassive black holes.

About SARAS

• Shaped Antenna measurement of the background Radio Spectrum 3 (SARAS) telescope.
• It is indigenously designed and built at Raman Research Institute — was deployed over Dandiganahalli Lake and Sharavati backwaters, located in Northern Karnataka, in early 2020.
• The results from the SARAS 3 telescope are the first time that radio observations of the averaged 21-centimeter line have been able to provide an insight to the properties of the earliest radio loud galaxies that are usually powered by supermassive black holes.
• SARAS 3 has improved our understanding of astrophysics of Cosmic Dawn, telling us that less than 3 percent of the gaseous matter within early galaxies was converted into stars, and that the earliest galaxies that were bright in radio emission were also strong in X-rays, which heated the cosmic gas in and around the early galaxies.
• It is used to reject claims of the detection of an anomalous 21-cm signal from Cosmic Dawn made by the EDGES radio telescope developed by researchers from Arizona State University (ASU) and MIT, USA.
• This refusal helped restore confidence in the concordant model of cosmology that was brought into question by the claimed detection.
• The analysis has shown that the 21-cm hydrogen signal can inform about the population of first stars and galaxies.

About the study

• Scientists study the properties of very early galaxies by observing radiation from hydrogen atoms in and around the galaxies, emitted at a frequency of approximately 1420 MHz.
• The radiation is stretched by the expansion of the universe, as it travels to us across space and time, and arrives at Earth in lower frequency radio bands 50-200 MHz, also used by FM and TV transmissions.
• The cosmic signal is extremely faint, buried in orders of magnitude brighter radiation from our own Galaxy and man-made terrestrial interference.
• Therefore, detecting the signal, even using the most powerful existing radio telescopes, has remained a challenge for astronomers.
• Usage: Even non-detection of this line from the early Universe can allow astronomers to study the properties of the very first galaxies by reaching exceptional sensitivity.

Question: What are the key characteristics of India’s SARAS radio telescope?

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

Scientists discover five new species of black corals living thousands of feet below the ocean surface near the Great Barrier Reef.

• Australian scientists used the Schmidt Ocean Institute’s remotely operated vehicle – a submarine named SuBastian – to explore the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea.

About black corals:

• Black corals can be found growing both in shallow waters and down to depths of over 26,000 feet (8,000 meters), and some individual corals can live for over 4,000 years.
• Many of these corals are branched and look like feathers, fans or bushes, while others are straight like a whip. 
• Unlike their colourful, shallow-water cousins that rely on the sun and photosynthesis for energy, black corals are filter feeders and eat tiny zooplankton that are abundant in deep waters.
• Black corals or antipatharians are colonial animals which are related to sea anemones and stony corals.
• They are named for the colour of their stiff, black or brownish skeleton.
• More than 150 species of black corals have been described. At least 14 species of black corals are currently known from Hawai’i.
• Distribution: Black corals are found in all oceans, but are most common in deep water habitats of tropical and subtropical seas.
• Black corals are carnivores.

Corals

• Corals are marine invertebrates or animals not possessing a spine. Each coral is called a polyp and thousands of such polyps live together to form a colony, which grows when polyps multiply to make copies of themselves.

Types of corals: Hard coral and soft coral.

• Hard corals, also called hermatypic or ‘reef building’ corals extract calcium carbonate (also found in limestone) from the seawater to build hard, white coral exoskeletons.
• Soft coral polyps, however, borrow their appearance from plants, attach themselves to such skeletons and older skeletons built by their ancestors. Soft corals also add their own skeletons to the hard structure over the years and these growing multiplying structures gradually form coral reefs. They are the largest living structures on the planet.

The major types of coral reefs are:

• Fringing Reefs: These are coral reefs that grow in shallow waters and in areas of low rainfall runoff, primarily on the leeward side. They closely border the coastline or are separated from it by a narrow stretch of water.
• Barrier reefs: These grow parallel to the coast, but are separated from land by a lagoon. Example: Great Barrier reef, Queensland, Australia
• Atolls: These grow surrounding (or partly surrounding) an island which then sinks relative to sea level. Example: Maldives consists of 26 atolls.

What is coral bleaching?

• Bleaching happens when corals experience stress in their environment due to changes in temperature, pollution or high levels of ocean acidity.
• Under stressed conditions, the zooxanthellae start producing reactive oxygen species, which are not beneficial to the corals. So, the corals expel the colour-giving zooxanthellae from their polyps, which exposes their pale white exoskeleton, giving the corals a bleached appearance. This also ends the symbiotic relationship that helps the corals to survive and grow.
• Bleached corals can survive, depending on the levels of bleaching and the recovery of sea temperatures to normal levels.
• But, severe bleaching and prolonged stress in the external environment can lead to coral death.

Threats

• Ocean Acidification
• Overfishing and Overharvesting of corals
• coral bleaching
• Sunscreen chemicals
• Many corals are threatened by illegal harvesting for jewellery.

Coral Diversity

• In the so-called true stony corals, which compose most tropical reefs, each polyp sits in a cup made of calcium carbonate.
• Stony corals are the most important reef builders, but organ pipe corals, precious red corals, and blue corals also have stony skeletons.
• There are also corals that use more flexible materials or tiny stiff rods to build their skeletons—the sea fans and sea rods, the rubbery soft corals, and the black corals.
• The fire corals (named for their strong sting) are anthozoans, which are divided into two main groups.
• The hexacorals have smooth tentacles, often in multiples of six, and the octocorals have eight tentacles, each of which has tiny branches running along the sides. All corals are in the phylum Cnidaria, the same as jellyfish.

Location of coral reefs:

• Coral reefs are mainly found in tropical seas (30°N to 30°S )where the sea is shallow (less than 100m); and  warm (usually between 25° and 29°C).
• They are also found in cold waters (temperature as low as 4°C) at depths between 40m to 2000m. 
• Unlike tropical corals, they don’t need sunlight to survive and don’t have zooxanthellae living in their polyps. 
• They feed solely by capturing food particles from the surrounding water.
• Example: They are found off the coast of Norway’s Røst Island,

In India, coral reefs are located in 7 regions:

• Goa coast
• Kerala coast
• Palk Bay,
• Gulf of Kutch
• Gulf of Mannar
• Lakshadweep islands
• Andaman and Nicobar islands

Question: What are the corals? Highlights the physical conditions for their growth and also show the their location in India.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

Several smartphones have their Bluetooth settings on discovery mode as it is a default setting, making it easy for hackers to access the phones when they are within 10 metres from the device. This is done through a process called Bluebugging.

What is Bluebugging?

• Bluebugging is a form of hacking that lets attackers access a device through its discoverable Bluetooth connection.
• Once a device or phone is bluebugged, a hacker can listen to the calls, read and send messages and steal and modify contacts.
• It started out as a threat to laptops with Bluetooth capability. 
• Later hackers used the technique to target mobile phones and other devices.

How does Bluebugging work?

• Bluebugging attacks by exploiting Bluetooth-enabled devices. The device’s Bluetooth must be in discoverable mode, which is the default setting on most devices.
• The bluetooth enabled device must also be within a 10-metre radius of the hacker.
• The hacker then tries to pair with the device via Bluetooth. Once a connection is established, hackers can use brute force attacks to bypass authentication. 
• They can install the malware in the compromised device to gain unauthorized access to it.

Which devices are susceptible to Bluebugging? 

• Any Bluetooth-enabled device can be bluebugged. 
• Wireless earbuds are also susceptible to such hacks. 
• Apps that enable users to connect to their TWS (True Wireless Stereo) devices or earbuds can record conversations.

What are the techniques to prevent bluebugging?

• Turning off Bluetooth and disconnecting paired Bluetooth devices when not in use.
• Updating the device’s system software to the latest version
• Limited use of public Wi-Fi.
• Using VPN as an additional security measure.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

In a major setback to rhino conservation in Africa, the proposal to downgrade the status of southern white rhino from Appendix I to Appendix II was accepted at the 19th Conference of Parties (COP19).

• The COP19, organised by Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) in Panama City, accepted the proposal by Botswana and Namibia to degrade the status. Wild animal species listed in Appendix I include those threatened with extinction.
• The animals named under Appendix II may not necessarily be threatened with extinction, but trade of such species should be controlled to ensure it does not threaten their existence.
• The proposal was confirmed after it received 83 votes in favour, 31 against it and 13 abstentions.

White Rhino

• Southern White rhinos are the second largest land mammal after the elephant.
• White rhinos are also known as the square-lipped rhinoceros due to their square (not pointed) upper lip.
• Two genetically different subspecies exist, the northern and southern white rhino and are found in two different regions in Africa.
• The IUCN Status of White Rhino is Near Threatened. The IUCN status of its subspecies is as follows:
• Northern White Rhino: Critically Endangered
• Southern White Rhino: Near Threatened

Southern White Rhino

• The southern white rhino and northern white rhino are subspecies of the white rhino. Aside from living in different parts of Africa, they differ slightly in the shape of their teeth and heads, appearance of skin folds, and amount of hair.
• In general, southern whites are a little larger and hairier. Contrary to the species name, both subspecies are Gray in colour.
• “White” may be taken from the Afrikaans word for “wide,” in reference to their mouths, which are wide and square to help them graze on grass.
• Common Name: Southern white rhinoceroses
• Scientific Name: Ceratotherium simum simum
• Diet: Herbivore

Habitat and behavior:

• Nearly 99 percent of southern white rhinos live in the savannas of Kenya, Namibia, and Zimbabwe, though the vast majority are found in South Africa.
• White rhinos are semi-social and territorial. They stay together in herds on the grassy plains and mark their territory with strategically placed deposits of dung.
• Threats: It is mostly threatened by habitat loss, continuous poaching in, and the high illegal demand for rhino horn for commercial purposes and use in traditional Chinese medicine.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

In one of its longest missions, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully placed nine satellites, including an Earth Observation Satellite (EOS-06) in multiple orbits with the help of the space agency’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C54).

• The eight nano satellites include ISRO Nano Satellite-2 for Bhutan (INS-2B), Anand, Astrocast (four satellites), and two Thybolt satellites. Notably, EOS-6 is the Oceansat series’ third-generation satellite. 
• This is the 56th flight of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and the 24th flight of the PSLV-XL version with 6 PSOM-Xls.

About the Satellites

• EOS-06 is envisaged to observe ocean colour data, sea surface temperature and wind vector data to use in oceanography, climatic and meteorological applications. 
• The satellite also supports value added products such as potential fishing zone using chlorophyll, SST and wind speed, and land based geophysical parameters.
• It is the Oceansat series’ third-generation satellite, which provides continued services of Oceansat-2 with enhanced payload capability.
• The satellite onboard carries four payloads.
• Astrocast, a 3U spacecraft with 4 Satellites from Spaceflight Inc, U.S., were separated.
• The Thybolt, a 0.5U spacecraft bus that includes a communication payload to enable rapid technology demonstration and constellation development for multiple users from Dhruva Space using their own Orbital Deployer with a minimum lifetime of one year, was deployed in the intended orbit. 
• The Anand three axis stabilised nano satellite, a technology demonstrator for miniaturised electro-optical payload and all other sub-systems like TTC, power, onboard computer and ADCS from Pixxel, India was also placed in the orbit.
• The INS-2B satellite has two payloads namely NanoMx, a multispectral optical imaging payload developed by Space Applications Centre (SAC) and APRS-Digipeater, which is jointly developed by DITT-Bhutan and URSC.

Future launches

• Aditya-L1, a coronagraphy spacecraft to study the solar atmosphere, with a PSLV rocket.

About Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle(PSLV):

• PSLV is known as the ‘workhorse’ of ISRO.
• It is the third generation launch vehicle of India.
• It is a four-staged launch vehicle with first and third stages using solid rocket motors and second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
• It is the first Indian launch vehicle to be equipped with liquid stages.

Question: India’s space programme is playing pivotal role to strengthen India’s ties with other countries. Discuss.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

According to sources, the work on India’s first-ever night sky sanctuary in Ladakh will be completed in a month.

About the Sanctuary:

• It is being set up by Council of Scientific and Industrial Research under Union Ministry of Science & Technology.
• The proposed Dark Sky Reserve will be located at Hanle in Ladakh as a part of Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary.
• The Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary is a high altitude wildlife sanctuary located in the Ladakh adjunct of the Changthang plateau.
• Hanle is located in Ladakh’s cold desert region, away from any form of human disturbance with clear sky conditions and dry weather conditions that exist throughout the year.
• In a first-of-its-kind initiative, the Department of Science & Technology (DST).
• Hanle, which is about 4,500 metres above sea level, hosts telescopes and is regarded as one of the world’s most optimal sites for astronomical observations. 
• However, ensuring that the site remains well-suited for astronomy implies keeping the night sky pristine, or ensuring minimal interference to the telescopes from artificial light sources such as electric lights and vehicular lights from the ground.
• A dark sky reserve is a designation given to a place that has policies in place to ensure that a tract of land or region has minimal artificial light interference. 

Significance

• Promotion astro-tourism, villages around Hanle would be encouraged to promote homestays equipped with telescopes that visitors can use to view the night sky.
• Villagers would also be trained to help visitors with astronomical observations.

Ideal Conditions

• The Indian Astronomical Observatory, the high-altitude station of the IIA, is situated to the north of Western Himalayas, at an altitude of 4,500 metres above mean sea level. 
• Located atop Mt. Saraswati in the Nilamkhul Plain in the Hanle Valley of Changthang, it is a dry, cold desert with sparse human population.
• The cloudless skies and low atmospheric water vapour make it one of the best sites in the world for optical, infrared, sub-millimetre, and millimetre wavelengths.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 2

The government of India has approved a Rs 124 crore proposal for setting up incubation centres in the Delhi and Bengaluru campuses of the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DoT) under the Digital Communication Innovation Square (DCIS) under Champion Services Sector Scheme.

About the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT)

• C-DOT was established in 1984 as an autonomous Telecom R&D centre of DoT, Government of India.
• It is a registered society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
• It is a registered ‘public funded research institution’ with the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR), Ministry of Science & Technology.
• This will act as a catalyst resulting in indigenous design, development, manufacturing and deployment of cost-effective 5G products and solutions
• This will bring the technical competencies and complementary strengths of Indian R&D and industry into a single unified platform leading to the creation of indigenous Intellectual Property (IP) assets that can generate new avenues for wider reach and commercialization of home-grown technologies at the global level
• The Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) is the premier R&D centre of the Department of Telecommunications, Ministry of Communications, Government of India
• C-DOT has indigenously designed and developed various cutting-edge Telecom technologies spanning Optical, Switching & Routing, Wireless, Security and a host of Telecom Software applications
• C-DOT has developed its indigenous 4G solution and is keenly working in the area of 5G.
• C-DOT reiterates its unequivocal commitment to the betterment of country’s telecom sector by working towards realizing the objectives of various flagship programs of the Government of India that include Digital India, Make in India, BharatNet, Skill India, Startup India and Smart Cities.
• Chairman: Union Minister of Communication & IT
• Vice Chairman: Union Minister of State for Communication & IT
• Members: 10 other members from various ministries and telecom sectors
• Customer Segments: Defence organizations & Strategic agencies, public sector / Govt. , Educational institutions, Manufacturing sector / Toll Operate Transfer partners, TSPs and ISPs etc.

Success stories of C-DOT:

Launch of Gyan Setu and MAXNG Technologies:

• ‘GyanSetu’ is an internet based real-me ICT system designed by C-DOT, primarily to provide various e services to the under privileged rural population of India.
• MAX-NG, C-DOT’s Next Generation Network (NGN) solution addresses the needs of the changing telecom scenario and enables a smooth transition from Plain Old Telephone System (POTS) to NGN based Voiceover-IP (VoIP).

Launch of Broadband Products:

• During Digital India Week, C-DOT launched four products and inaugurated IMS compliant NGN Services in MTNL network.
• High Speed, long distance Wi-Fi solution is Ideal for increasing the penetration of broadband services in difficult and inaccessible terrains e.g., hilly areas, dense vegetation, islands, unconnected villages. disaster sites, border areas, tunnels, Battlefield Surveillance.

Inauguration of Terabit Router & FTTD Solution:

• C-DOT has designed and developed India’s first indigenous Terabit Router.
• Honorable Minister of Communications & IT inaugurated C-DOT Terabit Router along with GPON based Fibber-to-the-Desk solution (FTTD) during a TSDSI function held at C-DOT Campus in October 2014.

Question: Discuss the telecom sector after the introduction of LPG reforms in 1990’s.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 2

The Sangeet Natak Akademi has bestowed special one-time awards commemorating 75 years of India’s independence on 86 artistes, apart from selecting 128 performing artistes from various fields for its regular annual awards for the years 2019-21.

Sangeet Natak Akademi

• Sangeet Natak Akademi, the apex body in the field of performing arts in the country, was set up in 1953 for the preservation and promotion of the vast intangible heritage of India’s diverse culture expressed in forms of music, dance and drama.
• The management of the Akademi vests in its General Council. The Chairman of the Akademi is appointed by the President of India for a term of five years.
• The functions of the Akademi are set down in the Akademi’s Memorandum of Association, adopted at its registration as a society on 11 September 1961.
• The registered office of the Akademi is at Rabindra Bhavan, New Delhi.
• Sangeet Natak Akademi is an autonomous body of the Ministry of Culture, Government of India.
• Sangeet Natak Akademi now has three constituent units, two of these being dance-teaching institutions: the Jawaharlal Nehru Manipur Dance Academy (JNMDA) at Imphal, and Kathak Kendra in Delhi.

The Sangeet Natak Akademi confers classical status on nine Indian dance forms:

• Bharatanatyam: Tamil Nadu
• Kathak: Northern India
• Kathakali: Kerala
• Kuchipudi: Andhra Pradesh
• Manipuri: Manipur
• Mohiniaattam: Kerala
• Odissi: Odisha
• Sattriya: Assam
• Chhau: Odisha

Question: Differentiate the characteristics of Kathak and Kathakali dance.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

The 19th Conference of Parties (COP19) to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) urged countries to remove references to parts and derivatives of pangolins “from the official pharmacopoeia” to help save the species.

• The pangolin is ‘the most trafficked animal in the world’. Pangolins are listed in Appendix I of CITES in accordance with the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s Red List.
• This means that the species is threatened with extinction. There are eight species of pangolins in the world of which the Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) and the Chinese Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) are found in India.

About the Pangolin

• They are scaly anteater mammals of the order Pholidota.

The Pangolin Conservation Status:

• IUCN Status: Endangered (India- Endangered, Chinese Pangolin- Critically Endangered)
• Wildlife Protection Act,1972: Under Schedule I of WPA, 1972

Animal Description

• It has large, overlapping scales on its body that act as armour.
• It can also curl itself into a ball (volvation) as self-defence against predators such as the tiger.
• The nocturnal animal lives in burrows and feed on ants and termites.

Indian Pangolin

• Indian Pangolin is a large anteater covered by 11-13 rows of scales on the back. A terminal scale is also present on the lower side of the tail of the Indian Pangolin, which is absent in the Chinese Pangolin.
• The species is found in various types of tropical forests as well as open land, grasslands, and degraded habitats, including in close proximity to villages.
• Indian Pangolin is widely distributed in India, except the arid region, high Himalayas and the North-East. It can be found at elevation up to 2500 m. The species also occurs in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal and Sri Lanka.

Chinese Pangolin

• It is found in the Himalayan foothills in Eastern Nepal, Bhutan, Northern India, North-East Bangladesh and through Southern China.
• It is adaptable to a wide range of habitats including primary and secondary tropical forests, limestone and bamboo forests, grasslands, and agricultural fields.

Threats

• Trafficking of live pangolin and its scales is a highly lucrative business for the organized mafia who exploit poor and vulnerable forest-dwelling communities for their criminal interests.
• Hunting and poaching for local consumptive use (e.g. as a protein source and traditional medicine) and international trade, for its meat and scales.
• Heavy Deforestation of their Habitat.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

• It is an international agreement between governments.
• CITES regulates international trade in specimens of species of wild fauna and flora based on a system of permits and certificates issued under certain conditions.
• It covers export, re-export, import and landing from the high seas of live and dead animals and plants and their parts and derivatives.
• CITES has now 183 Parties. Not all members of the United Nations are Parties to the Convention.
• The CITES Secretariat is hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

Origin

• It was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of IUCN (The World Conservation Union).
• The text of the Convention was finally agreed at a meeting of representatives of 80 countries in Washington, D.C, on 3 March 1973, and on 1 July 1975 CITES entered in force.

Question: How far the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) is able to control international of species? Discuss.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 1

In a significant development in the Tibetan Buddhist circles, the Nyingma sect has identified a boy from Spiti in Himachal Pradesh as the reincarnation of the late Taklung Setrung Rinpoche, a scholar known for his knowledge of Tibetan Tantric school.

The Nyingma Sect

• The Nyingma sect is the oldest of all Buddhist sects, and Taklung Setrung Rinpoche was a profound scholar renowned for his expertise in Tibetan Tantric school. 
• It is founded on the first lineages and translations of Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit into Tibetan in the eighth century, during the reign of King Trisong Detsen (r. 710–755).
• Nyingma traditional histories consider their teachings to trace back to the first Buddha Samantabhadra (Güntu Sangpo) and Indian mahasiddhas such as Garab Dorjé, Śrī Siṃha and Jñānasūtra.
• Traditional sources trace the origin of the Nyingma order in Tibet to figures associated with the initial introduction of Buddhism in the 8th century, such as Padmasambhava, Yeshe Tsogyal, Vimalamitra, Vairotsana, Buddhaguhya and Shantaraksita.
• The Rinpoche used to live in the Takthok monastery of Ladakh, one of the oldest monasteries related to the Nyingma sect. 
• The followers of the sect are spread across Tibet, Bhutan, Ladakh, Sikkim and other Himalayan Buddhist pockets. 
• The Rinpoche was widely consulted by the followers of the faith.
• The “reincarnation” of a prominent Rinpoche is important in the contest for supremacy over Buddhist affairs. 
• The veteran monks of various schools of Tibetan Buddhism, including the Dalai Lama, spread in many of the ancient monasteries in the Himalayas command a wide following across the Buddhist community in Tibet, India and other parts of the world.

Some Unique Aspects Nyingmapa Tradition:

• The practice of Dzogchen (Great Perfection). It the highest perfection in deity visualization.
• It seeks to directly examine the fundamental mind without the aid of Visualization like statue and Thangkha.
• The tradition of Terma. Padmasambhava has hidden lots of scriptures in a different location for the future master to find and preach.

Teachings of the Nyingma Sect:

• Its teachings are mainly based on those of Padmasambhava, called Guru Rinpoche and Shantarakshita who were brought to Tibet through the rule of the Emperor Trisong Detsen from 742 to 797 CE.
• Buddhist teachings are classified into nine yanas with ‘Dzogchen’ being most important.
• Dzogchen (Great Perfection) philosophy revolves around pure awareness which can be achieved through meditation.
• This Vajrayana tradition involves use of ritual, symbols and tantric practices to achieve nirvana.
• Therefore, Nyingma stresses on teachings attributed to Padmasambhava, the Dzogchen doctrines as well as Tantric practices.
• The Nyingma School is also associated with Termas (hidden treasures).

Q. Highlight the important features of the Nyingma Sect.