Syllabus: General Studies Paper 2

Why in News?

• A recent hooch tragedy in Bihar claimed many lives and left several others critically ill and blind.

What is the Background of Liquor Ban in India?

• In India, attempts at prohibition have been influenced by the thinking of Mahatma Gandhi, who viewed alcohol consumption more as a disease than a vice.
• Following India’s independence, Gandhians continued to push for a liquor ban.
  • These efforts led to the inclusion of Article 47 in the Constitution.
• Several Indian states have enacted bans on alcoholic beverages.
  • For example, Haryana made several attempts at prohibition but was forced to abandon the policy due to the inability to control illicit distillation and bootlegging, which also resulted in many deaths.
• Prohibition has been in effect in Gujarat since 1^stMay 1960, but the liquor trade persists through the black market.
• Bihar’s prohibition, imposed in April 2016, which initially appeared to succeed and yield certain social gains.
  • However, following several deaths from consuming illicit liquor, the policy is increasingly coming under attack.
• Currently, there are five states (Bihar, Gujarat, Lakshadweep, Nagaland, and Mizoram) with total prohibition and some more with partial prohibition.

What is the Indian Constitution’s View of Alcohol?

• Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP)(Article 47):
  • It mentions that “in particular, the State shall endeavour to bring about prohibition of the consumption except for medicinal purposes of intoxicating drinks and of drugs which are injurious to health.”
  • While DPSPs are not in themselves legally enforceable, they set goals that the state should aspire towards to establish conditions under which citizens can lead a good life.
  • Thus, alcohol is seen by the Constitution and by extension, the Indian state, as an undesirable evil that needs to be regulated.
• Seventh Schedule:
  • According to the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution, alcohol is a state subject, i.e., state legislatures have the right and responsibility to draft laws regarding it, including “the production, manufacture, possession, transport, purchase and sale of intoxicating liquors.”
  • Thus, laws regarding alcohol differ from state to state, falling in the whole spectrum between prohibition and private sale.

What is the Reason that Not all States have Banned Alcohol?

• While the Constitution sets prohibition on alcohol as a goal, for most states, it is very difficult to declare a ban on alcohol.
• This is primarily because liquor revenues are not easy to ignore and have consistently contributed a large share of state governments’ revenue.
  • For instance, in Maharashtra, state liquor revenues amounted to Rs 11,000 crore in April 2020 (during the nationwide Covid lockdown), compared with Rs 17,000 crore in March.

What are the Pros and Cons of Prohibition?

• Pros:
  • Various studies have provided evidence linking alcohol with domestic abuse or domestic violence.
• Case of Bihar: Crimes against women have clearly declined both in terms of rate (per 100,000 female population) and incidence (absolute numbers).
• Cons:
  • Strengthen Organised Crime Groups:
• Prohibition creates opportunities for a thriving underground economy that distributes liquor, outside the regulatory framework of the state.
• This creates its own problems, from strengthening organised crime groups (or mafias) to the distribution of spurious liquor.
• In the case of Bihar, it was reported that a year after prohibition was enforced, there was a spike in substance abuse.
• While the government made liquor more inaccessible, it is impossible to take it out of circulation completely.
  • Affects Poorer Sections of Society:
• Prohibition disproportionately affects poorer sections of society with upper classes still being able to procure expensive (and safe) alcohol.
• In Bihar, most of the cases registered under its prohibition laws are related to illicit or low-quality liquor consumption.
  • Burden on Judiciary:
• Bihar introduced complete prohibition in April 2016. While it certainly has led to reduction in alcohol consumption, the related social, economic, and administrative costs have been far too much to justify gains. Prohibition crippled the judicial administration.
• The former NV CJI Ramana had stated that decisions like the liquor ban in Bihar put a huge burden on courts. As of 2021, there are three lakh cases pending in the courts related to liquor ban.

Way Forward

• A Nuanced Approach is Needed:
  • There is a need for a nuanced approach that integrates the regulation of alcohol production and sale without compromising the requirements of public health.
  • The goal of an effective and sustainable alcohol policy can only be achieved through coordinated action between multiple stakeholders, such as women’s groups and vendors.
• Regulating Liquor:
  • On the regulation side, the rules on drunken driving and liquor advertisements can be tightened, and compulsory labelling on the dangers of excessive drinking can be mandated.
• On the advisory side, developed nations have adopted behavioural counselling, educating their people on the consequences of excessive liquor intake. Such campaigns help people make educated choices about their lifestyles.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 2

Why in News?

• Good Governance Day (25^thDecember) is being celebrated on the birth anniversary of former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee.

What is Good Governance?

• About:
  • Governance is the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented).
• Governance can be used in several contexts such as corporate governance, international governance, national governance and local governance.
  • Good Governance is defined as “the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country’s economic and social resources for development”
  • The concept of good governance existed even during the days of Chanakya. He had mentioned it elaborately in
  • Citizens centric administration lies on the foundation of good governance.
• 8 Principles of Good Governance:
  • Participation:
• People should be able to voice their own opinions through legitimate immediate organizations or representatives.
• This includes men and women, vulnerable sections of society, backward classes, minorities, etc.
• Participation also implies freedom of association and expression.
  • Rule of Law:
• Legal framework should be enforced impartially,especially on human rights laws.
• Without rule of law, politics will follow the principle of matsya nyaya i.e. the law of fish which means the strong will prevail over the weak.
  • Consensus Oriented:
• Consensus oriented decision-making ensures that even if everyone does not achieve what they want to the fullest, a common minimum can be achieved by everyone which will not be detrimental to anyone.
• It mediates differing interests to meet the broad consensus on the best interests of a community.
  • Equity and Inclusiveness:
• Good governance assures an equitable society.
• People should have opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being.
  • Effectiveness and Efficiency:
• Processes and institutions should be able to produce results that meet the needs of their community.
• Resources of the community should be used effectively for the maximum output.
  • Accountability:
• Good governance aims towards betterment of people, and this cannot take place without the government being accountable to the people.
• Governmental institutions, private sectors, and civil society organizations should be held accountable to the public and institutional stakeholders.
  • Transparency:
• Information should be accessible to the public and should be understandable and monitored.
• It also means free media and access to information.
  • Responsiveness:
• Institutions and processes should serve all stakeholders in a reasonable period of time.

What are the Challenges to Good Governance in India?

• Women Empowerment:
  • Women are not adequately represented in government institutions, and other allied sectors.
• Corruption:
  • The high level of corruption in India has been widely perceived as a major obstacle in improving the quality of governance.
• Delay in Justice:
  • A citizen has the right to avail timely justice, but there are several factors, because of which a common man doesn’t get timely justice. One such factor is lack of personnel and logistics under disposal of court.
• Centralisation of Administrative System:
  • Governments at lower levels can only function efficiently if they are empowered to do so. This is particularly relevant for the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), which currently suffer from inadequate devolution of funds as well as functionaries to carry out the functions constitutionally assigned to them.
• Criminalisation of Politics:
  • The criminalisation of the political process and the unholy nexus between politicians, civil servants, and business houses are having a baneful influence on public policy formulation and governance.
• Other Challenges:
  • Environmental security, sustainable development and challenges of globalization, liberalisation and market economy.

What are the Indian Initiatives to improve Good Governance?

• Good Governance Index (GGI):
  • GGI has been launched by the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances & Pensions to determine the status of governance in the country.
  • It assesses the impact of various interventions taken up by the State Government and UTs.
• National e-Governance Plan:
  • It has the vision to “make all government services accessible to the common man in his locality, through common service delivery outlets and ensure efficiency, transparency & reliability of such services at affordable costs to realise the basic needs of the common man.”
• Right to Information Act, 2005:
  • It plays an effective role in ensuring transparency in governance.
• Other Initiatives: Setting up of NITI Aayog, Make in India programme, Lokpal, etc.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

Why in News?

• Recently, the Genetically Modified (GM) mustard Dhara Mustard Hybrid (DMH-11) was tested in the field and shown to be more productive.
• Production of theDMH-11 variety is not interfering with honey bees’ natural pollination practices.

What are Genetically Modified (GM) Crops?

• GM crops are derived from plants whose genes are artificially modified, usually by inserting genetic material from another organism, in order to give it new properties, such as increased yield, tolerance to a herbicide, resistance to disease or drought, or improved nutritional value.
  • Earlier, India approved the commercial cultivation of only one GM crop, Bt cotton, but Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) has recommended GM Mustard for commercial use.

What is GM Mustard?

• DMH-11is an indigenously developed transgenic mustard. It is a genetically modified variant of Herbicide Tolerant (HT) mustard.
• DMH-11is a result of a cross between Indian mustard variety ‘Varuna’ and East European ‘Early Heera-2’
• It contains two alien genes (‘barnase’ and ‘barstar’) isolated from a soil bacterium called Bacillus amyloliquefaciens that enable breeding of high-yielding commercial mustard hybrids.
• Barnase in Varuna induces a temporary sterility because of which it can’t naturally self-pollinate. Barstar in Heera blocks the effect of barnase allowing seeds to be produced.
• DMH-11has shown approximately 28% more yield than the national check and 37 % more than the zonal checks and its use has been claimed and approved by the
  • “Bar gene”maintains the genetic purity of hybrid seed.

Why is the Barnase/Barstar System Required?

• The hybrid seed production requires an efficient male sterility and fertility restoration system.
• The currently available conventional cytoplasmic-genetic male sterility system in mustard has limitations of breakdown of sterility under certain environmental conditions leading to lowering of seed purity.
• The genetically engineered barnase/barstar system provides an efficient and robust alternative method for hybrid seed production in mustard.
• In India, the Centre for Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants (CGMCP) has made a successful attempt with some alterations in the barnase/ barstar system which culminated in the development of GM mustard hybrid MH11 which has undergone the required regulatory testing processes during 2008-2016.

Why GM Mustard is Necessary?

• India’s import of edible oils is on continuous rise to meet the domestic demand. It ultimately led reduction forex. GM Mustard is essential to reduce the forex drain on Agri-import.
• Productivity of oilseed crops, soybean, rapeseed mustard, groundnut, sesame, sunflower, safflower and linseed in India is much lower than the global productivity of these crops.
• Crossing of genetically diverse parents results in hybrids with increased yield and adaptation

What are the Safety Concerns associated with DMH-11?

• The safety of three genes used in the creation of the technique Barnase, Barstar and Bar is being questioned.
• Field trials for three years (two years of BRL-I and one year of BRL-II) have been conducted to assess the impact on human health and environment as per the stipulated guidelines and applicable rules.
• It is important to note that comprehensive research on the toxicity, allergenicity, compositional analysis, field trials, and environmental safety studies of GM mustard has shown that they are safe for food and feed usage as well as for production.
• DMH-11has “Bar gene” which is responsible for herbicide tolerance. Effectiveness of “Bar Gene” is under question as per herbicide tolerance is concerned.

What is the Significance of Genetically Modified Crops?

• Crossing of genetically diverse plants results in hybrids with increased yield and adaptation, a phenomenon known as hybrid vigor heterosis which has been widely exploited in crops like rice, maize, pearl millet, sunflower and many vegetables.
• It has been convincingly demonstrated that hybrids in general show20-25% higher yield over the conventional varieties across the crops.
• Hybrid technology can play an important role in enhancing the productivity of rapeseed mustard in the country.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 2

Why in News?

• Recently, the year-end-review of the Ministry of Panchayati Raj for the year 2022was released.

What are the Key Achievements of the Ministry?

• SVAMITVA Scheme:

• About:

• Survey of Villages and Mapping with Improvised Technology in Village Areas (SVAMITVA)scheme was launched by the Prime Minister on National Panchayati Raj Day 2020 to enable economic progress of Rural India by providing “Record of Rights” to every rural household owner.

• Achievements:

• As on December 2022, drone flying has been completed in around 2 lakh villages.
• Droneflying has been saturated in Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu, Delhi, Haryana, Lakshadweep Islands, Puducherry, Uttarakhand, Goa, Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Property cards have been prepared for all the Inhabited villages of Haryana and Uttarakhand.
• e-Gram Swaraj e-Financial Management System:

• e-Gram Swaraj is a Simplified Work Based Accounting Application for Panchayati Raj.
• It assists in enhancing the credibility of Panchayat through inducing greater devolution of funds to Panchayati Raj Institutions. It brings better transparency through decentralized planning, progress reporting and work-based accounting.

• Geo-Tagging of Assets:

• Ministry has developed “mActionSoft”, a mobile based solution to help in capturing photos with Geo-Tags (i.e., GPS Coordinates) for the works which have assets as an output.
• As of December 2022, 2.05 lakh photographs of the assets have been uploaded by the Gram Panchayats for the activities taken under Fifteen Finance Commission in 2022.

• Citizen Charter:

• In order to focus on the commitment of the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) towards its Citizens in respects of Standard of Services, the Ministry has provided platform to upload Citizen Charter document with the slogan “Meri Panchayat Mera Adhikaar – Jan Sevaayein Hamaare Dwaar”.
• Till December 2022, 2.15 lakh Gram Panchayats have uploaded their approved Citizen Charter and offering 952 services to citizen out of which 268 services are delivered through online mode.

• Audit Online:

• In order to provide audited reports of Panchayat accounts in the public domain, the Ministry had conceptualized the application “AuditOnline” for carrying out online audits of Panchayat accounts pertaining to Central Finance Commission Grants.
• It not only facilitates the auditing of accounts but also provisions for maintaining digital audit records pertaining to audits that have been carried out.

• Gram Urja Swaraj:

• The Ministry has started the Gram Urja Swaraj initiative, with an aim to promote adoption of renewable energy at Gram Panchayat level.
• The Ministry has also launched the Gram Urja Swaraj Portal in May 2022, to capture the inclination of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) towards adoption of renewable energy.

• Revamped Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan(2022-23 to 2025-26):

• The focus of the scheme of Revamped RGSA is on re-imagining Panchayati Raj Institutions as vibrant centers of local self-governance with special focus on Localization of Sustainable Development Goals (LSDGs) at grassroot level adopting thematic approach through concerted and collaborative efforts of Central Ministries and State Line departments and other Stakeholders with ‘Whole of Government and Whole of Society’ approach.
• The Revamped RGSA will extend to all States and Union Territories (UTs) of the country.

• As of December 2022, an amount of Rs.435.34 crore has been released to 11 State and other implementing agencies and more than 13 lakh Elected Representatives, Functionaries and & other stakeholders of Panchayats were provided various and multiple trainings for which details have been uploaded on Training Management Portal.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

Why in News?

• Recently, Japan has adopted a new policy promoting greater use of Nuclear Energy to ensure a stable power supply amid global fuel shortages and to reduce carbon emissions.

What is Japan’s New Policy?

• It is Japan’s major reversal of its nuclear phase-out plan following the Fukushima crisis in 2011.

• Fukushima accident caused by Tsunami in 2011 was the second worst nuclear accident in the history of nuclear power generation. The site is on Japan’s Pacific coast, in northeastern Fukushima prefecture about 100 km south of Sendai.

• The Policy seeks to maximize the use of existing nuclear reactors by restarting as many of them as possible and prolonging the operating life of old reactors beyond their 60-year limit, and by developing next-generation reactors to replace them.
• It pledges to sustain use of nuclear power into the future. Most nuclear reactors in Japan are more than 30 years old.
• It aims to push for the development and construction of “next-generation innovative reactors” with safer features to replace about 20 reactors now set for decommissioning.

• Nuclear energy accounts for less than 7% of Japan’s energy supply, and achieving the government’s goal of raising its share to 20-22% by fiscal 2030 will require about 27 reactors, from the current 10.

What is the Prospect of India’s Nuclear Energy?

• Status of Nuclear Energy:

• Nuclear energy is the fifth-largest source of electricity for India. India has over 22 nuclear reactors in 7 power plants across the country which produces 6780 MW of nuclear power. The 7 power plants are:

• Tarapur Atomic Power Station (TAPS), Maharashtra.
• Kudankulam Nuclear Power Station (KKNPS), Tamil Nadu
• Kakrapar Atomic Power Station (KAPS), Gujarat.
• (Kalpakkam) Madras Atomic Power Station (MAPS), Tamil Nadu.
• Narora Atomic Power Station (NAPS), Uttar Pradesh.
• Kaiga Generating Station (KGS), Karnataka.
• Rajasthan Atomic Power Station (RAPS), Rajasthan.

• The public sector entity, Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL), is responsible for designing, building, commissioning and operating nuclear power reactors in the country.

• NPCIL operates under the Indian government’s Department of Atomic Energy (DAE).

• Significance for India:

• Availability of Thorium: India is the leader of the new resource of nuclear fuel called Thorium, which is considered to be the nuclear fuel of the future.

• With the availability of Thorium, India has the potential to be the first nation to realise the dream of a fossil fuel-free nation.

• Cuts Import Bills: Nuclear energy will also relieve the nation of about USD 100 billion annually which we spend on importing petroleum and coal.
• Stable and Reliable Source: The greenest sources of power are definitely solar and wind. But solar and wind power, despite all their advantages, are not stable and are dependent excessively on weather and sunshine conditions.

• Nuclear power, on the other hand, provides a relatively clean, high-density source of reliable energy with an international presence.

• Cheaper to Run: Nuclear power plants are cheaper to run than their coal or gas rivals. It has been estimated that even factoring in costs such as managing radioactive fuel and disposal nuclear plants cost between 33 to 50% of a coal plant and 20 to 25% of a gas combined-cycle plant.

• Challenges:

• Insufficient Nuclear Installed Capacity: In 2008, the Atomic Energy Commission projected that India would have 650GW of installed capacity by 2050; the current installed capacity is only 6.78 GW.

• Such targets were based on the expectation that India would import many light-water reactors after the India-U.S. civil nuclear deal. But the deal has not led to the establishment of a single new nuclear plant, over 13 years after it was concluded.

• Lack of Public Funding: Nuclear power has never received the quantum of generous subsidy the fossil fuel received in the past and renewable is receiving currently.

• In absence of public funding, nuclear power will find it tough to compete against natural gas and renewables in the future.

• Acquisition of Land: Land acquisition and selection of location for Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) is also a major problem in the country.

• NPP’s like Kudankulam in Tamil Nadu and Kovvada in Andhra Pradesh have met with several delays due to the land acquisition related challenges.

• Impact of Climate Change: Climate change will increase the risk of nuclear reactor accidents. During the world’s increasingly hot summers, several nuclear power plants have already had to be temporarily shut down or taken off the grid.

• Further, nuclear power plants depend on nearby water sources to cool their reactors, and with many rivers drying up, those sources of water are no longer guaranteed.

• Deployment at Insufficient Scale: It might not be the appropriate choice for mitigating India’s carbon emissions since it cannot be deployed at the necessary scale.
• Nuclear Waste: Nuclear waste can have drastically bad effects on life, causing cancerous growths, for instance, or causing genetic problems for many generations of animals and plants.

• In a densely populated country such as India, land is at a premium and emergency health care is far from uniformly available.

What are India’s Initiatives Regarding Nuclear Energy?

• Three-stage Nuclear Power Programme:

1. India has consciously proceeded to explore the possibility of tapping nuclear energy for the purpose of power generation.
2. In this direction a three-stage nuclear power programme was formulated by Homi Bhabha in the 1950s.

• The Atomic Energy Act, 1962:

1. The Atomic Energy Act, 1962 was framed and implemented with the set objectives of using two naturally occurring elements Uranium and Thorium as nuclear fuel in Indian Nuclear Power Reactors.

• Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors:

1. In December, 2021, the Government of India informed Parliament about building ten indigenous Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) to be set up in fleet mode and had granted “in principle approval” for 28 additional reactors, including 24 to be imported from France, the U.S. and Russia.

• Nuclear power reactors at Jaitapur in Maharashtra:

1. Government has given in-principle (first step) approval for setting up of six nuclear power reactors at Jaitapur in Maharashtra.
2. Jaitapur would be the world’s most powerful nuclear power plant. There would be six state-of-the-art Evolutionary Power Reactors (EPRs) with an installed capacity of 9.6 GWe that will produce low carbon electricity.
3. The six nuclear power reactors, which will have a capacity of 1,650 MW each, will be set up with technical cooperation from France.

Way Forward

• The global energy crisis should spur a rational relook at an energy source as clear as nuclear which needlessly seen as a hot potato.

• We must make the right choices between various low-carbon technologies, all of which have some social and environmental impact.

• To meet rising energy demands, nuclear power is one of the better solutions.
• Considering lower capacity utilisation of renewables, rising fossil fuel prices and ever soaring pollution problems, the potential of nuclear power must be fully exploited.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

Why in News?

• As many as 13 farmers known for innovative farming were felicitated to mark Kisan Diwas or National Farmers Day on 23^rd December, 2022.
• The Kisan Diwas is observed across the country to celebrate the birth anniversary of Chaudhary Charan Singh, the former Prime Minister of India.

What are the Key Facts about Chaudhary Charan Singh?

• He was born in 1902 at Noorpur in Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh and was the Prime Minister of India from 28^th July 1979 to 14^th January 1980.
• Being a proponent of rural and agricultural development, he made continuous efforts for keeping agriculture at the centre of planning for India.
• He was given the nickname ‘Champion of India’s Peasants’ for his work towards upliftment of farmers and development of agriculture throughout the country.
• He took a leading part in formulation and finalisation of the Debt Redemption Bill 1939, in order to give relief to the peasantry from moneylenders.
• He was instrumental in bringing about the Land Holding Act, 1960 which was aimed at lowering the ceiling on land holdings to make it uniform throughout the Uttar Pradesh.
• He left Congress in 1967 and formed his independent party known as the Bharatiya Lok Dal.
• He served twice as Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh. He became Prime Minister of India in 1979.
• He was the author of several books and pamphlets, including ‘Abolition of Zamindari’, ‘Co-operative Farming X-rayed’, ‘India’s Poverty and its Solution’, ‘Peasant Proprietorship or Land to the Workers’ and ‘Prevention of Division of Holdings Below a Certain Minimum’.

What are the Related Initiatives for Farmers?

• PM-KISAN: Under the scheme, the Centre transfers an amount of Rs 6,000 per year, in three equal instalments, directly into the bank accounts of all landholding farmers irrespective of the size of their land holdings.
• National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: It aims at promoting sustainable agriculture practices best suitable to the specific agro-ecology.
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana: It has three main components namely Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP), Har Khet ko Pani (HKKP), and watershed development components.
• Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY): It was initiated in 2007, and allowed states to choose their own agriculture and allied sector development activities as per the district/state agriculture plan.
• Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) Programme: Under this programme, fertilizers are provided to the farmers at the subsidized rates based on the nutrients (N, P, K & S) contained in these fertilizers.
• Rashtriya Gokul Mission: It is being implemented for development and conservation of indigenous bovine breeds since December 2014.
• Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana: It provides a comprehensive insurance cover against failure of the crop thus helping in stabilising the income of the farmers.
• Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana: Launched in 2015, it is an elaborated component of Soil Health Management (SHM) of major project National Mission of Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA).
• Kisan Credit Card : The scheme was introduced in 1998 for providing adequate and timely credit support from the banking system, under a single window with flexible and simplified procedure to the farmers.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

Why in News?

• Outer Space Institute (OSI) has called for both national and multilateral efforts to restrict uncontrolled re-entries of Satellites.
• OSI is a network of world-leading space experts united by their commitment to highly innovative, transdisciplinary research that addresses grand challenges facing the continued use and exploration of space.

What are the Stages of a Rocket Launch?

• Primary Stage:

• The primary stage of a rocket is the first rocket engine to engage, providing the initial thrust to send the rocket skyward.
• This engine will continue to operate until its fuel is exhausted, at which time it separates from the rocket and falls to the ground.

• Secondary Stage:

• After the primary stage has fallen away, the next rocket engine engages to continue the rocket on its trajectory.
• The second stage has considerably less work to do, since the rocket is already traveling at high speed and the rocket’s weight has significantly decreased due to the separation of the first stage.
• If the rocket has additional stages, the process will repeat until the rocket is in space.

• Payload:

• Once the payload, whether it be a satellite or a spacecraft, is in orbit, the rocket’s final stage falls away, and the craft will be manoeuvred using smaller rockets whose purpose is to guide the spacecraft. Unlike the main rocket engines, these manoeuvring rockets can be used multiple times.

What is Uncontrolled Re-entry?

• In an uncontrolled re-entry, the rocket stage simply falls. Its path down is determined by its shape, angle of descent, air currents and other characteristics.
• It will also disintegrate as it falls. As the smaller pieces fan out, the potential radius of impact will increase on the ground.
• Some pieces burn up entirely while others don’t.But because of the speed at which they’re travelling, debris can be deadly.

• As per a 2021 report of the International Space Safety Foundation, an impact anywhere on an airliner with debris of mass above 300 grams would produce a catastrophic failure, meaning all people on board would be killed.

• Most rocket parts have landed in oceans principally because earth’s surface has more water than land. But many have dropped on land as well.

What are the Concerns?

• There have been many instances in the past where rockets striking some parts on Earth.
• Russian rocket in 2018 and China’s Long March 5Brockets in 2020 and 2022 striking parts of Indonesia, Peru, India and Ivory Coast, among others.
• Parts of a SpaceX Falcon 9that fell down in Indonesia in 2016 included two “refrigerator-sized fuel tanks”.
• If re-entering stages still hold fuel, atmospheric and terrestrial chemical contamination is another risk.
• It is estimated that casualty risk from uncontrolled rocket body re-entries will be of order of 10% in the next decade” and that countries in the ‘Global South’ face a “disproportionately higher” risk of casualties.

• The U.S. Orbital Debris Mitigation Standard Practices (ODMSP) require all launches to keep the chance of a casualty from a re-entering body to be below 0.01%.

• There is no international binding agreement to ensure rocket stages always perform controlled re-entries nor on the technologies with which to do so.
• The Liability Convention 1972 requires countries to pay for damages, not prevent them.
• These technologies include wing-like attachments, de-orbiting brakes, and extra fuel on the re-entering body, and design changes that minimize debris formation.

What can make Minimum Damage?

• Future solutions need to be extended not just launching satellites but to re-entering satellites as well.
• Advances in electronics and fabrication have made way for smaller satellites, which are easier to build and launch in large numbers. These satellites experience more atmospheric drag than if they had been bigger, but they are also likely to burn up during re-entry.

• India’s 300-kg RISAT-2 satellite re-entered earth’s atmosphere in October after 13 years in low-earth orbit. The ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation) tracked it with its system for safe and sustainable space operations management from a month beforehand. It plotted its predicted paths using models in-house.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 2

Why in News?

• Recently, the Jammu and Kashmir administration has notified “J&K Land Grant Rules 2022” which has ended the owners right to hold on to properties on lease in the Union Territory (U.T.) and plans to outsource these properties afresh online.

What are the Key Features of J&K Land Grant Rules 2022?

• The new laws replaced “J&K Land Grants Rules 1960”,which had liberal lease policy such as 99-year lease period and extendable.
• Most hotels at famous tourist places in the Valley and prime commercial structures in twin capitals of Jammu and Srinagar are on lease land.
• The new laws state that all leases, except the subsisting or expired residential leases, including lease granted under the J&K Land Grants Rules 1960, notified area (All Development Authorities set in tourism sector) Land Grants Rules, 2007 and leases expired or determined prior to the coming into force of these rules or issued under these rules shall not be renewed and shall stand determined.
• The Lieutenant Governor administration plans to hold a fresh online auction to outsource these lease properties.
• All the outgoing lessees would immediately hand over the possession of the land taken on lease to the government, failing which the outgoing lessee shall be evicted.
• J&K’s land laws were regressive.

Why are the Rules being Opposed?

• Few Political Parties have argued that the newly-introduced Land Grant Rules-2022 will push six to seven lakh people into the unemployment bracket and will only pave the way for millionaires and capitalists from outside to buy hotels and commercial establishments in J&K.
• The fresh Land Grant Rules-2022 will end the rights of present owners and sell it at market price. No local businessman has purchasing power compared to millionaires and billionaires from the rest of the country.
• The present owners with bank loans will be forced to sell their houses to repay their loans.
• The current bank borrowing from the J&K Bank stands at ₹60,000 crore, an indicator of the loans raised by locals to survive the turbulent times since 1990s.

What are Administrations’ Claims for the Rules?

• The J&K Administration has claimed that no poor will be impacted by the amendments to the land laws. Rule of law outside has to be implemented here too.
• There were properties worth ₹100 crore, which were being leased for ₹ 5 as payment. Only such people are worried by the amendments. New rules are to bring J&K at par with the rest of the country.
• Lieutenant Governor claimed that the land laws in J&K were regressive and were not framed keeping in view the interests of the common masses. Around 40% – 45% cases in various courts are due to land disputes only.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 2

Why in News?

• It is estimated that around April 2023, India’s 1.43 billion people will exceed China’s population.
• In 2022, China will for the first time register an absolute decline in its population.

What are the Drivers of these Shifts?

• Mortality and Fertility:
• Crude Death Rate (CDR): The CDR — the number of persons dying per year per 1,000 population — was 23.2 for China and 22.2 for India in 1950.
• It fell to single digits for China first in 1974 (to 9.5) and for India in 1994 (9.8), and further to 7.3-7.4 for both in 2020.
• Life Expectancy at Birth: Another mortality indicator is life expectancy at birth. Between 1950 and 2020, it went up from 43.7 to 78.1 years for China and from 41.7 to 70.1 years for India.
• Total Fertility Rate: The total fertility rate (TFR) — the number of babies an average woman bears over her lifetime — was as high as 5.8 for China and 5.7 for India in 1950.
• India’s TFR fell to 2 in 2019-2021, from 3.4 in 1992-93.
• Sustained Lows in TFR:
• Populations can keep growing even with TFRs falling. De-growth requires TFRs to remain below replacement levelsfor extended periods.
• The effects of that — fewer children today becoming parents tomorrow and procreating just as much or less — may reflect only after a couple of generations.
• China’s TFR dipped below replacement first in 1991,which was almost 30 years before India’s.

What are the Challenges and Opportunities?

• Challenges:
• Having the most people on the planet could prove to be a big negative for India unless it can provide food, education, housing, health services and jobs to its people.
• The scale of this challenge is ­gigantic.
• Across India, water scarcity is a chronic issue. All these needs are crucial but by far the single most important thing for India to do is to generate jobs. The scale of this ­particular challenge is truly daunting.
• In 2020, India has 900 ­million people (67% of the total population) in the working age group of 15-64.
• This is expected to expand by another 100 million by 2030.
• Opportunity:
• Claim for permanent member at UNSC: If India becomes the largest country, it will give Indians a claim to be the permanent member of the Security Council.
• New population will push its existing demand for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council.
• The geopolitical reality has changed and new powers have emerged which deserve a place alongside the old – Russia, the UK, China, France and the United States.
• Increase in Fiscal Space: Fiscal resources can be diverted from spending on children to investing in modern physical and human infrastructure that will increase economic sustainability of India.
• Rise in Workforce:With more than 65% of the working age population, India can rise as an economic superpower, supplying more than half of Asia’s potential workforce over the coming decades.
• Increase in the Labour Forcethat enhances the productivity of the economy.
• Rise in Women’s Workforce that naturally accompanies a decline in fertility, and which can be a new source of growth.

What should be the Strategy of India?

• Mass Prosperity Strategy:
• India’s large remittances from a small population overseas reinforce that our mass prosperity strategy should be human capital and formal jobs.
• 8 % of software employment workers generate 8 % of GDP.
• This case is reinforced by remittances from the overseas population of less than 2 % of our resident population crossing USD 100 billion last year.
• Qualitative Shift in Employment:
• The qualitative shift during the previous five years from low-skilled, informal employment in Gulf countries to high-skilled formal jobs in high-income countries is significant.
• In 2021, the US replaced the UAE as the single biggest source country with 23 % of remittances. Our rich forex remittance harvest — roughly 25 % higher than FDI and 25 % less than software exports — is fruit from the tree of human capital and formal jobs.
• Additional Jobs:
• To absorb the influx of young people into the workplace, India would need to create close to 12 million additional, non-farm jobs every year, starting in 2023.
• This was triple the four million non-farm jobs created annually between 2012 and 2018.
• India would need a growth rate of 10% per annum to be able to invest in industry so that this army of young people can be absorbed.
• Investments in Education:
• While India is expected to have a demographic dividend from this large workforce, reaping its potential benefits requires significant investments in education.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 2

Why in News?

• Recently, responding to the demands by the Opposition, the Lok Sabha has referred the Multi-State Co-operative Societies (Amendment) Bill 2022to a joint committee of Parliament.
• The Bill is aimed at overhauling the Multi-State Cooperative Societies Act, 2002, which was enacted 20 years ago.

What is a Cooperative Society?

• About:
• Cooperatives are organizations formed at the grassroots level by people to harness the power of collective bargaining in the marketplace.
• This can mean different kinds of arrangements, such as using a common resource or sharing capital, to derive a common gain that would otherwise be difficult for an individual producer to get.
• In agriculture, cooperative dairies, sugar mills, spinning mills etc. are formed with the pooled resources of farmers who wish to process their produce.
• Amul is perhaps the best-known cooperative society in India.
• Jurisdiction:
• Cooperatives are a state subject under the Constitution, meaning they come under the state governments’ jurisdiction, but there are many societies whose members and areas of operation are spread across more than one state.
• For example, most sugar mills along the districts on the Karnataka-Maharashtra border procure cane from both states.
• Cooperatives of more than one state are registered under the Multi-State Co-operative Societies Act (MSCS) of 2002 Act.
• Their board of directors has representation from all states they operate in.
• Administrative and financial control of these societies is with the central registrar, with the law making it clear that no state government official can wield any control over them.

What is the Need for Amendment?

• Since 2002, many changes have taken place in the field of cooperatives. At that time, Cooperation was a department under the Ministry of Agriculture. However, in July 2021, the government carved out a separate Cooperation Ministry.
• Part IXB was inserted in the Constitution via 97^th Constitutional Amendment Act 2011. In view of the insertion of Part IXB, it has become imperative to amend the Act.
• Under 97^thAmendment:
• The right to form cooperative societies was included as Right to Freedom (Article 19 (1)).
• Promotion of Cooperation societies was inserted as one of the DPSPs (Article 43-B).
• Further, developments over the years also necessitated changes in the Act so as to strengthen the co-operative movement in the multi-State co-operative societies.

What are the Proposed Amendments?

• Merger of Cooperatives:
• The Bill provides for the merger of “any co-operative society” into an existing MSCS by a resolution passed by majority (at least 2/3rd) of the members present and voting at a general meeting of such society.
• At present, only MSCS can amalgamatethemselves and form a new MSCS.
• Co-operative Election Authority:
• The Bill seeks to establish a “Co-operative Election Authority”, with a view to bring “electoral reforms” in the co-operative sector.
• The Authority shall consist of a Chairperson, a Vice-Chairperson and a maximum of 3 more members to be appointed by the Centre.
• All the members will hold office for 3 years or until they attain the age of 65 years (whichever is earlier) and shall be eligible for re-appointment.
• Stricter Punishments:
• The Bill seeks to increase the amount of penaltyfor certain offences.
• If the board of directors or officers receive any unlawful gains while transacting matters related to such society, they will be punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than one month but which may extend to one year or with fine.
• Cooperative Ombudsman:
• The government has proposed to appoint one or more “Co-operative Ombudsman” with a territorial jurisdiction for inquiring into the complaints made by the members.
• The Co-operative Ombudsman will have the powers of civil court in summoning and examination.
• Rehabilitation and Development Fund:
• The Bill also seeks the “establishment of the Co-operative Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Development Fund”for revival of “sick MSCS”.
• It also proposes to insert a new section70A relating to “concurrent audit” for MSCS shaving an annual turnover or deposit of more than the amount as determined by the Central Government.

What are the Criticisms of the Proposed Bill?

• The Opposition members in the Lok Sabha have argued that the bill seeks to “take away” state governments’ rights.
• Some of the objections are based on the fact that cooperative societies are a state subject. Entry 43 of the Union List (7^thSchedule) makes it clear that co-operative societies do not come in the Centre’s domain.
• Entry 43 says– “Incorporation, regulation and winding up of trading corporations, including banking, insurance and financial corporations, but not including co-operative societies”.

Question for practice

1. “In the villages itself no form of credit organization will be suitable except the cooperative society.” – All India Rural Credit Survey.
2. Q. Discuss this statement in the background of agricultural finance in India. What constraints and challenges do financial institutions supplying agricultural finance face? How can technology be used to better reach and serve rural clients? (2014)