General Studies Paper 2

• Context: The Supreme Court refused to hear a bail plea by the Deputy CM of Delhi in the excise policy case, as he had approached the court directly under Article 32 of the Constitution instead of first seeking remedy in the High Court under Section 482 of the CrPC.
• SC argued that though in previous cases petitions were entertained directly under Article 32,t those cases involved free speech issues while this case is about Prevention of Corruption act.

What is the Background?

• Previously, Special CBI Judge had granted  Central Bureau of Investigation(CBI) custody of Deputy CM on the ground that he ‘failed to provide satisfactory answers.’
  • The court had rejected the argument that it was a violation of right against self-incrimination.

What is an Individual’s Right against Self-incrimination?

• Constitutional Provisions:
• Article 20grants protection against arbitrary and excessive punishment to an accused person, whether citizen or foreigner or legal person like a company or a corporation. It contains three provisions in that direction:
• It contains provisions related to No ex-post-facto law, No double jeopardy, No self-incrimination.
• No self-incrimination: No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.
• The protection against self-incrimination extends to both oral evidence and documentary evidence.
• However, it does not extend to
  • compulsory production of material objects,
  • compulsion to give thumb impression, specimen signature, blood specimens, and
  • compulsory exhibition of the body.
  • Further, it extends only to criminal proceedings and not to civil proceedings or proceedings which are not of criminal nature.

General Studies Paper 2

Context: India should follow a path of multi-engagement and not multi-alignment.

 Background: India has consistently resisted international pressure to criticise Russia and its actions.

• For example, India has once again abstained from voting on a UN General Assembly resolution that condemns Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.

The global order in international relations:

• After the end of the 2nd World War: A bipolar world, led by the U.S. and the Soviet Union, emerged.
• Following the disintegration of the Soviet Union (1991): Unipolarity replaced bipolarity, with the U.S. being its centre.
• However, there have been discussions about whether American unipolarity has passed and a new world order (multipolar) has emerged.

Signs of the new world order:

• China’s rapid rise
• Russia’s aggressive foreign policy – the invasion of Ukraine, challenged the post-Cold War security equilibrium in Europe.
• The S.’s ability to shape geopolitical outcomes is clearly in decline (withdrawal from Afghanistan)

Impact of this transition (from uni to multipolarity):

• Leaving the world in flux. Lack of clarity on which direction the world is headed makes policy-making harder for middle powers like India.
• While many governments (including India, Russia and China), welcome multipolarity, the U.S. remains the world’s most powerful military power.

 India and the Non-alignment success:

• When India became independent, the Cold War was in its early stages.
• India’s non-alignment foreign policy doctrine (equidistant from both blocs) did well in managing most of its (ideological and geopolitical) challenges.
• Criticised as too idealistic, India has actually been flexible in readapting itself to the changes in the global and regional equations.
• In the 1970s, after China started moving closer to the U.S., India started tilting towards the Soviet Union but stayed out of any Soviet-led military alliances.
• When the Soviet Union collapsed, India sought to transform its ties with the U.S. and integrate itself with the global economy in the new era of globalisation.
• But it also maintained close defence and strategic ties with Russia and built a vibrant economic partnership with China.

A new set of challenges for India in the new global disorder:

• S.-China’s great power contest in Asia is unfolding right in India’s neighbourhood.
• The power imbalance between India and China, tempted India to join the American bloc.
• Abandoning its strategic autonomy and joining the U.S.-led bloc would limit India’s options, besides provoking China.
• Border disputes between India and China.
• China has developed a strategic partnership with Pakistan and is raising its influence in other South Asian and Indian Ocean countries.
• So, on all fronts (including challenges to India’s maritime influence), India faces the heat of China’s rise.

Other challenges faced by India: U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan and the Taliban’s return to power.

How Russia’s invasion of Ukraine has complicated the situation for India?

• Russia is a traditional partner with which India has deep defence ties.
• As the West has moved to isolate Russia with heavy sanctions, India is under huge pressure to take a more critical position on Russia’s actions.
• The West’s move to isolate Russia in Europe would push the country further into the Chinese embrace.

Way ahead for India:

• Learning from China. In the 1970s, China broke away from the Soviet communist fold and built a quasi-alliance with the U.S. and helped the ‘imperialist bloc’ defeat the Soviet communists.
  • Once China acquired enough economic and military power, it started gradually challenging the U.S.
• Therefore, India’s primary focus should be on transforming itself economically and militarily, bridging the gap with China.
• India should present itself as a natural stabilising power in South Asia and the Indian Ocean Region, and a source of prosperity.
• To address its continental security challenges, India has to work with Eurasian powers such as Russia and Iran, both of which are at odds with the U.S.

Conclusion: India should opt for multi-engagement (not multi-alignment) for a multipolar world, creating new pillars of the new global order through engagement and partnership with middle powers.

General Studies Paper 3

• Context: The past few incidents have highlighted the vulnerabilities of our fast-expanding digital networks.The first one targeted the servers of India’s All India Institute of Medical Science(AIIMS), compromising around 40 million health records and causing a two-week-long system outage.
• Another attack involved a ransomware group, BlackCat, breaching the parent company of Solar Industries Limited, a Ministry of Defence ammunition and explosives manufacturer, and stealing over 2 Terabytes of data.
• These incidents highlight the urgent need for increased cybersecurity measures to prevent such attacks from happening in the future.

What are the Challenges related to Cyber Security?

• Recent Cyber Attacks:
  • Ransomware attacks are becoming more frequent and costly, with over 75% of Indian organizations having faced such attacks and each breach costing an average of ₹35 crore of damage.
• Vulnerability of Critical Infrastructure:
  • The lines between the physical and digital realms are blurring rapidly, making Critical infrastructure extremely vulnerable to attacks from hostile state and non-state actors.
  • Cyber capabilities can be used to undermine critical infrastructure, industry, and security, as seen in the ongoing conflict in Ukraine where electronic systems in warheads, radars, and communication devices have reportedly been rendered ineffective using hacking and GPS jamming.
• Under-Preparedness:
  • CERT-In has introduced guidelines for organizations to comply with when connected to the digital realm, but most organizations lack the tools to identify and prevent cyberattacks.
  • Also, there is an acute scarcity of cybersecurity professionals in India.
• Limited Private Sector Participation:
  • Private sector participation remains limited in India’s cybersecurity structures, and collaboration with like-minded intergovernmental and state frameworks is necessary to protect users and customers from cyber breaches.
• Added Complexity:

With more inclusion of artificial intelligence (AI) machine learning (ML), data analytics, cloud computing and Internet of Things (IoT) cyberspace will become a complex domain, giving rise to issues of a techno-legal nature.

• The introduction of 5G and the arrival of quantum computing will increase the potency of malicious software.

What are the Initiatives Regarding Cyber Security?

• Global Initiatives:
  • Budapest Convention on Cybercrime:It is an international treaty  that seeks to address Internet and computer crime by harmonizing national laws, improving investigative techniques, and increasing cooperation among nations. It came into force on 1^st July 2004. India is not a signatory to this convention.
  • Internet Governance Forum (IGF): It brings together all stakeholders i.e., government, private sector and civil society on the Internet governance debate.
  • UNGA Resolutions:The United Nations General Assembly established two processes on the issues of security in the information and communication technologies (ICT) environment.
    • The Open-ended Working Group (OEWG) through resolution by Russia
    • The Group of Governmental Experts(GGE) through resolution by USA
  • Indian Initiatives:
    • National Cyber Security Strategy 2020:It seeks to improve cyber awareness and cybersecurity through more stringent audits.Empanelled cyber auditors will look more carefully at the security features of organisations than are legally necessary now.
    • National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC):The NCIIPC, created under Information Technology Act, 2000, operates as the nodal agency for protection and resilience of critical information infrastructure
    • Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C):It was setup in 2020 to deal with all types of cybercrimes in a comprehensive and coordinated manner.
    • Cyber Surakshit Bharat Initiative: It was launched in 2018 with an aim to spread awareness about cybercrime and building capacity for safety measures for Chief Information Security Officers (CISOs) and frontline IT staff across all government departments.
    • Cyber Swachhta Kendra: In 2017, this platform was introduced for internet users to clean their computers and devices by wiping out viruses and malware.
    • Information Technology Act, 2000:The Act regulates use of computers, computer systems, computer networks and also data and information in electronic format.
    • National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal:It is a citizen-centric initiative which will enable citizens to report cybercrimes online and all the complaints will be accessed by the concerned law enforcement agencies for taking action as per law.
    • Computer Emergency Response Team – India (CERT-In):It is an organization of the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology which collects, analyses and disseminates information on cyber incidents, and also issues alert on cybersecurity incidents.
    • Cybersecurity Treaties:India has already signed cybersecurity treaties with countries such as the US, Russia, the UK, South Korea, and the European Union.
    • Multilateral Frameworks:Efforts are being made in multinational frameworks such as the Quad and the I2U2 to enhance cooperation in cyber incident responses, technology collaboration, capacity building, and in the improvement of cyber resilience.
    • India’s draft Digital Personal Data Protection Bill 2022:It seeks to ensure usage of personal data for lawful purposes only and proposes a penalty of up to ₹500 crore for data breaches.
    • Defence Cyber Agency (DCyA):It is created by Indian armed forces and is capable of offensive and defensive manoeuvres.

How can India Utilize G20 Summit to Build Consensus on Cyber Security?

• Utilizing the Opportunity of the G20 Summit:As the host nation for the G20 summit, India can use this opportunity to bring together all the stakeholders driving the global levers of power to discuss cybersecurity.
• Creating a Global Framework:India could take the lead in conceptualizing a global framework of common minimum acceptance for cybersecurity. This would be a significant contribution to collective security and a step towards building consensus on cybersecurity.
• Raising Awareness:India can use the G20 summit to raise awareness about cybersecurity issues, emphasizing the importance of taking preventive measures and developing effective cybersecurity policies.

What can be the Way Forward?

• International Cooperation:It is of critical importance to ensure global cooperation through information sharing and strengthening joint efforts in cybersecurity research and development as most cyberattacks originate from beyond the borders.
  • India can consider joining Budapest Convention along with Multilateral initiatives like QUAD.
• Plugging the Gaps:It is important for the corporates or the respective government departments to find the gaps in their organisations and address those gaps and create a layered security system, wherein security threat intelligence sharing is happening between different layers.
• A Truly Global Framework:It is needed as the current efforts are operating in silos. An apex body will be able to ensure operational coordination amongst various agencies.
• Coordination and Information Dissemination:Formalize the coordination and prioritization of cyber security research and development activities; disseminate vulnerability advisories and threat warnings in a timely manner.

General Studies Paper 3

• Context: Recently, India ranks 42^ndamong 55 leading global economies on the International Intellectual Property (IP) Index 2023 released by the S. Chambers of Commerce, according to which India is ripe to become a leader for emerging markets seeking to transform their economy through IP-driven innovation.
• US topped the International IP Index followed by United Kingdom and France.

What is International IP Index?

• The Index evaluates the IP framework in each economy across 50 unique indicators which industry believes represent economies with the most effective IP systems.
• The indicators create a snapshot of an economy overall IP ecosystem and span nine categories of protection:Patents, Copyrights, Trademarks, Design Rights, Trade Secrets, Commercialization of IP Assets, Enforcement, Systemic Efficiency, Membership and Ratification of International Treaties.

What is Intellectual Property?

• About:
  •  Intellectual Property (IP)refers to creations of the mind, such as inventions, literary and artistic works, symbols, names, and images used in commerce.
  • It is a form of legal protection in the form of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)given to individuals or companies for their creative and innovative works.
    • These rights are outlined in Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.  
  • These legal protections allow the creators to control use of their work and prevent others from using or reproducing them without permission.
• Types:
  • The main types of IP include patents for inventions, trademarks for branding, copyrights for artistic and literary works, trade secrets for confidential business information, and industrial designs for product appearance.
• India and IPR:
  • India is a member of the World Trade Organisation and committed to the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS Agreement)
  • India is also a member of World Intellectual Property Organization, a body responsible for the promotion of the protection of intellectual property rights throughout the world.
  • The National Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Policy 2016 was adopted in May 2016 as a vision document to guide future development of IPRs in the country.
    • Its clarion call is“Creative India; Innovative India”.
  • Issues Related to IPR:
    • Enforcement:Despite efforts to strengthen IP enforcement, piracy and counterfeiting remain significant problems in India.
      • Enforcement agencies often lack the resources and expertise to effectively combat these issues, leading to low rates of prosecution and conviction.
    • Patent Backlog:The backlog of patent applications in India is a major challenge.
      • This leads to delays in granting patents and creates uncertainty for innovators seeking to protect their inventions.
    • Lack of IP Awareness:There is still a lack of awareness and understanding of IPR among many businesses and individuals in India.
      • This can lead to inadvertent infringement of IP rights,as well as challenges in enforcing these rights.

Way Forward

• Enhancing Enforcement:India needs to strengthen its IP enforcement mechanisms, including increasing resources and expertise for enforcement agencies, improving coordination between different agencies, and streamlining legal procedures for IP disputes.
• Streamlining Regulations:India needs to simplify and streamline the regulatory environment for IPR, including reducing administrative burdens and increasing transparency in IP registration and enforcement procedures.
• Encouraging Innovation: India needs to incentivize innovation by offering tax incentives and funding for research and development, as well as promoting collaborations between industry, academia, and government.

General Studies Paper 1

• Context: In March of last year (2022), meteorologists in India issued the first heat wave warning of the year. They were anticipating an exceptionally early summer with some of India’s highest temperatures ever recorded.
• But, this year, India Meteorological Agency issued the year’s first heat wave advisory in February. It stated that regions of India’s western region could reach temperatures of 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit or higher (37C). Some parts of India, on the other hand, are experiencing temperatures that are exceptional for mid-March and are at least 9 degrees above averag Experts are concerned about the exceptionally high temperatures.
• Similarly, several parts of Europe witnessed an unprecedented winter heat wave at the beginning of 2023. The Washington Post report called it an “extreme event”. Experts said that temperatures increased 10 to 20 degrees Celsius above normal.
• According to the report, at least seven countries recorded their hottest January weather ever. These included Poland, Denmark, the Czech Republic, the Netherlands, Belarus, Lithuania, and Latvia.
• Therefore, it becomes important to understand the reason behind the winter heat wave that has become a global phenomenon this year.

Factors causing winter heat waves:

In India

• Weak Western Disturbances: Western disturbance is the factor that keeps the temperature in control during Feb and march. However, this year, western disturbances have been weak due to which wind is lacking moisture for adequate rainfall. It is causing dry spells over the plains and subdued rainfall or snowfall over hills
• Climate change:In terms of climate change, the Middle East is warming faster than other regions near the equator, and it is acting as a source of warm air that blows toward India.
• Anti-cyclone formation:The anticyclone is forming over the northeastern part of the Arabian Sea, which has now moved over southwest Rajasthan. Due to this anticyclone, hot and dry winds from Balochistan, South Sindh, and Thar Desert are reaching northwest India as well as Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.
• Possibility of El Nino Year:The last three years have been La Nia years. Scientists have predicted a high likelihood that this year will be an El Nino year. It has a significant impact on weather and climate patterns and is linked to drought and poor monsoons in India. This may also contribute to a winter heat wave in India.

In Europe

• Heat dome:According to the Washington Post, the European continent is experiencing an unusually warm spell due to the creation of a heat dome over the region.

Other General Factors

• Air flowing in from the northwest rolls in over the mountains of Afghanistan and Pakistan, so some of the compression also happens on the leeward side of these mountains, entering India with a bristling warmth.
• Lapse rate– the rate at which temperatures cool from the surface to the upper atmosphere – is declining under global warming. In other words, global warming tends to warm the upper atmosphere faster than the air near the surface. This in turn means that the sinking air is warmer due to global warming, and thus produces heat waves as it sinks and compresses.

What are heat waves?

• Qualitatively, heat wave is a condition of air temperature which becomes fatal to the human body when exposed. Quantitatively, it is defined based on the temperature thresholds over a region in terms of actual temperature or its departure from normal. In certain countries, it is defined in terms of the heat index based on temperature and humidity or based on the extreme percentile of the temperatures.

How heat waves are different from Heat domes?

• While both are connected, they are not the same. Weather patterns with a high-pressure system aloft and sinking air at the surface are called heat domes. Whereas A heat wave is a lengthy period of extremely hot weather that can be generated by a variety of weather patterns, including heat domes, as well as other factors such as a strong ridge of high pressure or a lack of cloud cover.

Implications of heat waves:

• Reduced agricultural productivity: Crops, like human bodies, thrive within a fairly narrow range of temperatures. While a small temperature increase can lead some plants to produce more, heat over 90 degrees Fahrenheit leads to a sharp drop in yields for grains like wheat, chickpeas, and mustard seeds. Last year’s (2022) heat brought wheat production down by roughly 10 percent or almost 11 million metric tons. This year has already seen not just issues with wheat production, but also with chickpeas and mustard seeds — crucial Indian crops.
• Low rainfall: A lack of moisture in the winds restricts the amount of winter rain and snow in certain Himalayan cities, resulting in record-breaking temperatures.
• Economic consequences: Employees are less productive during hot weather, even if they work inside, while children struggle to learn in extreme heat, resulting in lower lifetime earnings which in turn hurts future economic growth. A 2018 study found that the economies of US states tend to grow at a slower pace during hot summers. “The data shows that annual growth falls 0.15 to 0.25 percentage points for every 1 degree Fahrenheit that a state’s average summer temperature was above normal.”
• Energy crisis: Moreover, a coal shortage last year (2021-2022) led to a fuel crisis in India’s thermal power plants, as electricity demand for air conditioners and fans shot up alongside a recovering post-pandemic economy. One study anticipates that by 2100, greater use of air conditioning could increase residential energy consumption by 83% globally.
• Health impacts: That health can suffer greatly without spring during the transition from winter to summer. The heat index, a combination of heat and humidity, is often used to convey this danger by indicating what the temperature will feel like to most people. The high humidity also reduces the amount of cooling at night. Warm nights can leave people without air conditioners unable to cool off, which increases the risk of heat illnesses and deaths. With global warming, temperatures are already higher.
• Equity and justice: Not everyone experiences heat waves in the same ways and the ill effects of heat impact most heavily those in already-disadvantaged groups.

Strategies to deal with heat waves:

Global

• The United Farm Workers are doing everything they can to get a new national heat regulating measure passed.
• Climate activists are continuing their campaigns for the requirements of a Green New Deal, including the need that public housing be environmentally friendly, and are also continuing their efforts to halt the development of fossil fuel

India

Prior to 2015

• Prior to 2015, there was no comprehensive national strategy to combat heat waves.
• According to the NDMA, before 2015, it was mostly up to the state governments to deal with disaster risk
• Heat waves have been declared a local disaster in Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Kerala, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and
• Under the rules for disaster relief in place at the national level, heat waves were not considered to be a disaster. But, state governments were authorized to spend up to 10 percent of funds under certain heads for the heat wave

After 2015

• After 2015, the natural disaster started figuring in the priority list of topmost officials in the country including the Prime Minister as chairman of the
• Following this in 2016, the NDMA drew up the first national guidelines for heat waves titled ‘Preparation of Action Plan–Prevention and Management of Heat Wave‘.
• The guidelines were twice revised, first in 2017 and then in 2019. They were enriched with recommendations for more specific actions, based on scientific inputs derived from various research papers, reports, and best practices in heat wave assessment and mapping
• Ward-level Heat Action Plans have improved cities’ and states’ capacity to manage heat stress and respond to heat wave-related
• The revisions in 2019 included a new section, ‘Built Environment’; the revisions focused on short-term, medium-term, and long-term measures for heat wave risk
• Fixing responsibility: The National Guidelines on Heat Wave spell out in a matrix format the roles and responsibilities of central and state government agencies, district administrations, local self-governments, NGOs, civil society organizations, and other stakeholders.

Way forward:

• Over the years, the NDMA has also taken a host of measures that include rescheduling of working hoursfor outdoor workers, the creation of drinking water kiosks, the supply of water through tankers, the erection of special shelter homes, an increase in health facilities, the stocking of ORS packets at health centers and the nearest anganwadi centers, the placement of cooling systems, and construction of gaushalas with fodder banks, etc. However, there are more steps that can be take:

1. States need to compare mortality numbers to previous years to ascertain heat-related deaths, a data set that is underdeveloped in the country.
2. Awareness should be created of the symptoms of heat stroke and its consequences as also the precautions that should be taken.
3. The Medical and Health department should keep stock of ORS, IV fluids, glucose, Pot Chlor (Potassium Chloride), derma allergic creams, and other essentials in adequate quantities while it should ensure uninterrupted telephone link to all its facilities (institutions) so that people in distress could make emergency contact with them.
4. The village secretaries and other officials concerned should conduct gram sabhas and publicize the do’s and don’ts besides ensuring dependable water
5. Persons hailing from the weaker sections who suffer heat strokes should be given free treatment at government hospitals while effort should be made to rope in NGOs and other voluntary bodies to run water and butter milk supply centres.
6. There is a need to adapt their buildings, infrastructure, and working hours to higher temperatures.
7. There are also benefits to so-called ‘urban greening’, where more trees and other vegetation can help to cool down cities and towns.

General Studies Paper 3

Context:

• Agriculture is the mainstay of Indian economy, despite the rise of manufacturing and services sectors. The sector contributes 15% to the GDP and provides livelihood to almost two-thirds of the total working population in the country. Agriculture is also the key source of raw materials for textile, sugar, food, medicine (primarily Ayurveda), and new age health and fitness products. Like other industries agriculture, especially irrigation, requires substantial energy inputs. According to estimates, agriculture uses 20% of electricity consumed at national level. Farmers have installed nine million diesel pump sets for groundwater irrigation. The high consumption of power in the agriculture sector is concerning especially in context of India’s climate goals. The Government has set a target to eliminate the use of diesel in the sector by 2024, thus making the agriculture power sector green. Renewable energy (RE) has emerged as the most viable and sustainable option to address the environment concerns. It can also boost farmer income and conserve natural resources. The Government has taken several steps to empower farmers with RE Systems to make them energy self-sufficient. The Union Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) administers several Central Government-sponsored initiatives and facilitates associated research, design, development, and manufacturing to promote RE systems/devices in agriculture.

Renewable Sources to Power Agriculture Sector

Biogas

• Biogas is one of the most popular and versatile form of RE deployed extensively in rural India to serve many purposes. At present, over five million biogas plants of various capacities are operational in the country. Biogas plants generate the high calorific value (5,000 kcal per cu.m.) gas by decomposition of organic materials such as cattle dung, agricultural wastes, poultry droppings, night soil and municipal wastes.
• Biogas is used as clean fuel for cooking, lighting, motive power etc. It is also used in diesel engines to substitute diesel up to 80%, however, 100% replacement of diesel may be achieved by using Biogas Engines. The digested slurry from biogas plants, a by-product, is used as a nutrient enriched organic manure for improving crop yield and also maintain soil health.
• Biogas plants help with waste management, reduce energy costs, improve soil fertility and curb carbon emissions. Proper waste management on farms leads to better cleanliness and hygiene which improves the living conditions and health of the community. The biogas sector has helped generate employment for both skilled and unskilled rural people.
• Government of India is promoting installation of biogas plants by providing subsidy through two major schemes:
• (a)New National Biogas and Organic Manure Programme (NNBOMP) for biogas plants in size range of 1 cu.m. to 25 cu.m. per day;
• (b) Biogas Power Generation (off-grid) and Thermal Energy Application Programme (BPGTP) for setting up biogas plants in the size range of 30 cu.m. to 2500 cu.m. per day. This corresponds to power generation capacity range of 3 kW to 250 kW for thermal energy/cooling applications.
• GOBARdhan: The Government of India has launched a dedicated GOBARdhan (Galvanising Organic Bio-Agro Resources Dhan) scheme (Swachh Bharat Mission Grameen Phase-2) with twin objectives:
•  (a)To make the villages clean;
• (b) Generate clean power from organic wastes. The scheme also aims to increase income of farmers by converting biodegradable waste into compressed biogas (CBG). Technical and financial assistance under the scheme is attracting entrepreneurs for establishing community based CBG plants in rural areas. CBG is a purified form of biogas (98% purity of methane content) which makes it suitable for use as green and clean fuel for transportation or filling in cylinders at high pressure (250 bar). Scheme is also promoting rural employment and income generation opportunities for rural youth and others.
• Recently, Asia’s largest CBG plant was inaugurated at Sangrur, Punjab with an FDI investment of INR 220 crores. CBG plant offers a much needed substitute for burning crop stubbles. The Sangrur plant can consume 300 tonnes of paddy straw every day.  It is claimed that this plant will reduce the burning of stubble on 40,000-45,000 acres of fields, resulting in an annual reduction of 150,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions. This will help India meet its CoP-26 climate change targets of reducing carbon emissions.

Biomass

• Biomass is another potential source of RE in rural India that provides power for household needs and irrigation. Biomass materials used for power generation primarily include bagasse, rice husk, straw, crop waste and agricultural residues. A study estimated surplus biomass availability at about 230 million metric tones per annum covering agricultural residues corresponding to a power potential of 28GW.
• MNRE has been implementing biomass power/cogeneration programs since mid-90s. Over 800 biomass power and bagasse/ non-bagasse cogeneration projects aggregating to over 10,206 MW capacity have been installed with central financial assistance from the Government of India.
• Power from biomass is generated by installing biomass gasifiers in proximity to the source of raw materials to reduce costs. In Bihar, a gasifier based business model for power generation and distribution uses rice-husk as source material. A series of more than 80 biomass gasifier plants supplies power to nearly 300 villages and hamlets on payment basis. People generally use electricity for household, business lighting, charging of mobile phones and operation of irrigation pumpsets. Irrigation pumps powered by rice-husk electricity are cheaper, long lasting and more eco-friendly than diesel powered pumps. Irrigation facility at low cost allows farmers to increase crop intensity and also improves crop yield. It can help reduce the emission intensity of power use in agriculture sector.

Solar

• Government of India has made a strong commitment to explore and tap the vast potential of solar energy for driving the development of various economic sectors vis-à-vis meeting the targets of COP-26. Addressing the energy concerns in agriculture sector, a large number of solar devices/ equipments have been developed and deployed that include solar water pumps, solar dryers, solar dusters etc.

PM-KUSUM

• PM-KUSUM (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Surkasha Evan Utthaan Mahaabhiyan) scheme, launched in 2019, has emerged as a real game changer for energy security of farming community and greening the power use in agriculture sector. It is one of the largest initiatives of the world to provide clean energy to more than 35 lakh farmers and enhance their income. The scheme is being implemented through its three components with specific objectives.
• Component A: Decentralised Grid Connected Solar Power Plants (Target – 10,000 MW): This component intends to make farmers ‘Urja Data‘ by installing small solar power plant (up to 2 MW capacity) on barren, fallow, pasture or marshy land, and selling the generated power to electricity Distribution Companies (DISCOMS) on a pre-determined rate. In case of cultivated lands, solar panels may be set up in such a manner that chosen crops may grow under the panels. In addition to individual farmers, cooperatives, panchayats, and Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs) can also be beneficiary under the scheme.
• A farmer may earn up to INR 25,000 per acre per year if the plant is installed by a developer; and up to INR 65,000 if the plant is installed individually through loan. The RBI has notified this component under priority sector lending that allows competitive rates and soft terms. The Union Government provides financial incentive to DISCOMS for purchase of power from such solar plants. About 73.45 MW cumulative capacity of small solar plants have been installed under this component so far, out of which 48.2 MW has been added during 2022.
• Component B: Installation of Standalone Solar Powered Agriculture Pumps (Target – 20 lakh): Under this component, individual farmers can replace their existing diesel pumps with solar pumps through Central Financial Assistance (30% of the benchmark cost) and State Government’s subsidy (30%). The remaining 40% will be borne by the farmer, but bank finance for 30% is available, so farmer will have to initially pay only 10% of the cost.
• Groups of farmers, water user associations and community/ cluster-based irrigation systems are also eligible for financial assistance. All solar pumps installed under the scheme will be equipped with remote monitoring systems to facilitate their monitoring on a real time basis. Solar pumps will reduce the irrigation costs of about INR 50,000 per year for a 5 HP pump.
• Component C: Solarisation of existing Grid-connected agriculture pumps (Target – 15 lakh): Under this component, exclusive power feeders for agricultural purposes will be solarised by installing solar power plants of required capacity. The farmer will get day time reliable power for irrigation free of cost or at a tariff as fixed by their respective States.
• In addition to day time reliable power and increase in farmer’s income, the scheme also has direct employment generation potential. According to estimates, each solar installation creates ~ 25 job years per MW. After complete implementation, the scheme will lead to an annual reduction of 1.38 billion litres in diesel consumption per year, thus, reducing the import bill on account of petroleum products. The scheme will also lead to reducing carbon emissions by as much as 32 million tones per annum.

Solar PV (Photo Voltaic) Pumping Systems

• Among many solar devices/equipments developed so far, solar water pumps are the most popular ones with wide scale adoption across the country. Technically called Solar PV (Photo Voltaic) pumping systems, these are of great utility specifically in low head situations like water lifting from canals, shallow wells and dug wells, farm ponds etc. Solar PV systems can be best used with pressurized systems. Large size solar pumps in a canal command area to irrigate crops with sprinklers.

Conclusion

• Renewable Energy can play a vital role in providing power to agriculture sector. Due to immense potential and scope of renewable energy in agriculture sector, Government is focusing on decentralised RE systems and products. MNRE has recently released a framework (2022) to promote RE based applications that are used for earning livelihoods. A special focus on engaging all stakeholders, skill development and capacity building would scale up RE-based livelihood applications. However, financing for the end-users and enterprises would be critical to enable the adoption of solutions and scale-up of the sector. There has been a visible impact of renewable energy in the Indian agriculture during the last few years. RE based decentralised and distributed applications have benefitted millions of farmers in villages by meeting their energy needs in an environment friendly manner.

General Studies Paper 3

• Context: Digital technology is playing an important role in achieving India’s G20 Presidency goal (“Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” or “One Earth, One Family, One Future”).

Background:

• The Indian Presidency’s priority is to make the digital financial system more efficient, secure, and stable.
• For this to happen, financial sector regulatory reforms are essential.
• However, there is no comprehensive global policy framework for  crypto assets despite the rapid evolution of the crypto universe.
• The global standard-setting bodies (such as the FATF, Financial Stability Board (FSB), Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS), etc) have been coordinating the regulatory agenda.

Probable benefits of crypto assets:

• Cheaper and faster cross-border payments
• More integrated financial markets
• Increased financial inclusion

Challenges:

• Greater interconnectedness between crypto assets and the traditional financial sector
• Complexity and volatility around crypto assets
• Critical digital infrastructure/platforms
• Global information gaps pertaining to the crypto asset

Status of Crypto regulation  in India:

• RBI has announced Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC), a sort of official cryptocurrency, for retail as well as wholesale users in 2022 on a pilot basis.

How can the Indian G20 Presidency shape Global Policy Dialogue on Crypto Assets?

• Broaden the discussion on crypto assets:Beyond financial integrity concerns and capture the macroeconomic implications and widespread crypto adoption in the economy.
• Inform policymakers: On the broader macroeconomic and financial stability implications of crypto assets.
• Highlight the consequences of crypto adoption:On the internal and external stability of a country’s economy as well as on the structure of its financial system.

Way Forward: IMF’s 9 points crypto asset action plan – 

• Safeguard monetary sovereignty and stability by strengthening monetary policy frameworks and do not grant crypto assets legal tender status.
• Guard against excessive capital flow volatility and maintain the effectiveness of capital flow management measures.
• Analyse and disclose fiscal risks and adopt unambiguous tax treatment of crypto assets.
• Establish legal certainty of crypto assets and address legal risks.
• Develop oversight requirements for all crypto market actors.
• Establish a joint monitoring framework across different domestic agencies and authorities.
• Establish international collaborative arrangements.
• Monitor the impact of crypto assets on the stability of the international monetary system.
• Strengthen global cooperation to develop digital infrastructures.

General Studies Paper 2

• Context: Recently the Election Commission of India recognized the party formed by a group of MLAs defecting from the state legislative assembly in Maharashtra as the original party.

Anti-defection Law:

• Origin:
  • Aaya Ram Gaya Ram was a phrase that became popular in Indian politics after a Haryana MLA Gaya Lal changed his party thrice within the same day in 1967.
  • The anti-defection law was a response to the similar toppling of multiple state governments by party-hopping MLAs.
  • Parliament added it to the Constitution in 1985.
• The Tenth Schedule was inserted in the Constitution by 52nd Amendment Act.
• It lays down the process by which legislators may be disqualified on grounds of defection.

What constitutes defection?

• The law covers three kinds of scenarios:
  • Voluntarily giving up:
    • When legislators elected on the ticket of one political party “voluntarily give up” membership of that party or vote in the legislature against the party’s wishes.
    • A legislator’s speech and conduct inside and outside the legislature can lead to deciding the voluntarily giving up membership.
  • Independent members:
    • The second scenario arises when an MP/MLA who has been elected as an independent joins a party later.
  • Nominated legislators:
    • The law specifies that nominated legislators can join a political party within six months of being appointed to the House, and not after such time.
  • Violation of the law in any of these scenarios can lead to a legislator being penalised for defection.
• Applicable to: 
  • The law applies to both Parliament and state assemblies.
• Deciding authority:
  • The Presiding Officers of the Legislature (Speaker, Chairman)are the deciding authorities in such cases.
  • The Supreme Court has held legislators can challenge their decisions before the higher judiciary.
• How long does it take for deciding cases of defection?
  • The law does not provide a time frame within which the presiding officer has to decide a defection case.
  • The court in its recent judgment has held that, ideally, Speakers should take a decision on a defection petition within three months.
• Exceptions in Law:
  • Legislators may change their party without the risk of disqualification in certain circumstances.
    • The law allows a party to merge with or into another party provided that at least two-thirds of its legislators are in favour of the merger.
    • In such a scenario, neither the members who decide to merge, nor the ones who stay with the original party will face disqualification.

Significance:

• Stability:
  • Defection causes destabilisation, which leads to governments falling and new governments coming up with the help of the defectors.
    • The law aims to bring stability to governments by discouraging legislators from changing parties.
  • Loyalty:
    • Also, anti-defection law tries to bring a sense of loyalty of the members towards their own party.
      • It aims to ensure that members selected in the name of the party are also loyal to the part manifesto and the basic philosophy of the party to which he belongs.

Criticisms around the law

• No scope for acting independently:
  • The key problem with a law that penalises legislators for acting independently is that it goes against the idea of a parliamentary democracy.
  • The disqualification provisions of the Anti-Defection Law binds legislators to the official position taken by their party on any issue.
• No accountability to the constituency:
  • The requirement of abiding by the party direction also reduces the accountability of legislators to their constituency.
• Choosing Party leadership over ideological cohesion:
  • What the law tries to do is to stabilise party systems by consolidating control of the party leadership instead of through ideological cohesion or ownership of the party.
    • By doing this, it is framing democracy not as a system of representation and accountability, but as a contest between factions which have consolidated power.
  • Split as a defence against disqualification:
    • According to the Tenth Schedule of the Constitution, if there is a split in a particular party, and one-third of the legislators move along with the breakaway group, they will not be disqualified. So, split was a defence against disqualification.
    • It is being misinterpreted as is seen in Maharashtra because there is no authoritative interpretation of the law.
  • No timeline for presiding officer to decide:
    • In the 10th Schedule currently, there is no timeline fixed for the Speaker to determine the issue and the purpose of this anti-defection law is defeated.
  • Lure of office:
    • It is widely claimed that Ideological defection doesn’t take place in India & the legislators defect for the lure of office.

Suggestions & way ahead

• Substantive decrease in defections:
  • Owing to the implementation of the Tenth Schedule, there has been a substantive decrease in the defection cases.
  • The provisions of the Tenth Schedule have stood the test of time and several judicial scrutinies.
• Apply only when to test the stability of the government:
  • The law aims to maintain stability in governments but the Anti-Defection Law currently applies to every vote, and even in Rajya Sabha and Legislative Councils of states, where the government’s stability is not at stake.
  • There have been proposals to limit the Anti-Defection Law to votes which test the stability of the government such as no-confidence motions and money bills.
• The Dinesh Goswami Committee on Electoral Reforms (1990): 
  • The committee had recommended that disqualification on grounds of defection should be limited to:
    • An elected member voluntarily giving up membership of his political party, and
    • Voting contrary to the party whip only in respect of vote of confidence/no-confidence, money bill, or motion of vote of thanks to the President’s address.
  • Retaining support is government’ s responsibility: 
    • The onus is on the government to retain the support of a majority of MPs, including those from the same party.
    • Only then can the government be held accountable for its actions.

General Studies Paper 2

• Context: A year after start of  Russia-Ukraine conflict  there are still signs of escalation everywhere. Calculations on both sides that this would be a short, swift war have proved wrong.
• The anniversary of war comes in the backdrop of Russia’s withdrawal from New START treaty.

What is the Current Status of the War?

• The West has recently announced the supply of more advanced weapons to Ukraine, deepening its involvement in the conflict.
  • In response, Russian President Vladimir Putin has already reinforced Russian positions along the 1,000-km long frontline in Ukraine.
• Risks of a direct confrontation between Russia and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), both nuclear powers, are also on the rise as the war is extended.
• Russia wanted to install a Moscow friendly regime and to take the whole of Ukraine’s east and south, stretching from Kharkiv in the northeast through the Donbas in the east (which comprises Luhansk and Donetsk) to Odesa, the Black Sea port city in the southwest, turning the country into a land-locked rump. Russia has failed to meet any of these objectives.
• Nevertheless, Russia has taken substantial portions of Ukrainian territories,including Mariupol. Russia’s territorial gains in Ukraine peaked in March 2022, when it controlled some 22% of pre-2014 Ukraine.
• Ukraine recaptured some land in Kharkiv and Kherson. But still, Russia controls some 17% of Ukraine.
• Focused fighting has been going on in some flashpoints along the frontline including Bakhmut, Donetsk and Zaporizhzhia.

What has been the West’s Response?

• Approach:
  • Punish Russia’s economy through sanctions and thereby weaken its war machine.
  • Arming Ukraine to counter the Russian offensive.
• Major Aid Providers:
  • The S. is Ukraine’s biggest aid provider— it has pledged military and financial assistance worth over USD 70 billion.
  • The EU has pledged $37 billion and among the EU countries, the K. and Germany top the list.
• Evaluation of Western Response:
  • While the approach of arming Ukraine has been effective in at least halting the Russian advances, hurting Russia economically has been a double-edged sword.
    • Sanctions on Russia, one of the top global producers of oil and gas, hit the global economy hard, worsening an inflationary crisis across the West, particularly in Europe.
    • Russia also took a hit, but it found alternative markets for its energy exports in Asia, redrawing the global energy export landscape. In 2022, despite sanctions, Russia raised its oil output by 2% and boosted oil export earnings by 20%.
    • The Russian economy was estimated to have contracted by 2% in 2023, but, according to the IMF, it is expected to grow 0.3% in 2023 and 2.1% in 2024.
    • In comparison, Germany, Europe’s largest economy, is expected to grow 0.1% in 2023, while the U.K., Ukraine’s second biggest backer, is projected to contract by 0.6%.

Is there a Possibility for a Negotiated Settlement?

• Both sides had exchanged several drafts about a potential peace plan in March 2022, but the S. and the U.K. staunchly opposed Ukraine reaching any agreement with Russia. Talks collapsed in March.
• In July 2022,Turkey brokered a deal on taking out Russian and Ukrainian food grains through the Black Sea known as Black Sea Food grain initiative.  Also, Warring parties had reached some prisoner exchange agreements.
• But barring these, talks between the two sides are non-existent.
  • Russia, despite the slow progress of its “special military operation”, remains adamant.
  • Zelensky recently stated that he would not reach any agreement with Russia making territorial compromises.
  • There is absolutely no push from the West for talks.
  • China has stepped in with its own peace initiative, which is not in public domain yet.
• For any peace plan to succeed a few Key issues are to be addressed.
  • Ukraine’s territorial concerns.
  • Russia’s security concerns.
  • Washington and Moscow should reach some kind of understanding as Ukraine, given its dependence on the West, would require clearance from west for any final settlement.
    • However, in context of Russian withdrawal from New START Treaty,possibility of such settlement in the near future looks bleak.

How has the War Reshaped Geopolitics?

• Increased focus on Security and Defence:
  • The war has re-energized the Europe-US security alliance. NATO has opened its door to the proposed inclusion of Sweden and Finland, that will, once in (Turkey’s approval is awaited), form the new military frontiers of the alliance against Russia.
• Trust Deficit:
  • The trust deficit between Russia and the West is at an-all time high.The US-led alliance is pouring weapons into Ukraine.
    • Though US President seems reluctant to accept all of Ukraine’s demands, including for combat aircraft including F16s, perhaps mindful of the risk of widening the war.
  • China Factor:
    • Moscow formalized its friendship with China in 2022 as “limitless”. But China also does not want to jeopardize its Europe ties.
    • China has not contributed with weapons to Russia and also expressed its reservation against nuclear war.
    • However, the US and Europe remain concerned about Chinese arms supplies to Russia.

What has been India’s Stand?

• The Ukraine war has been an opportunity to practice strategic autonomy.Adopting a neutrality India has maintained its relationship with Moscow while iterating support to global peace.
• India worked around Western sanctions to buy oil from Russia. As much as 25% of India’s oil purchase is now from Russia, from less than 2% before the war.
• Recently,India abstained on a UNGA resolution on first anniversary of the war, asking Russia to withdraw from its territory as the resolution had limitations in reaching the lasting goal of securing lasting peace.
  • India has abstained on all three votes so far on the Ukraine crisis at the UN General Assembly since Russian invasion.
• But the longer the war continues, the more pressure on India from the Western alliance to choose the “right side”.
• India has expressed the hope that it can use its G-20 presidency to bring peace.

Way Forward

• There is an urgent need for the parties of the war to return to negotiation table as the escalation of hostilities and violence is in no one’s interest.
• International principles and jurisprudence make it clear that parties to a conflict should ensure civilians and civilian infrastructure are not targeted, and the global order is based on international law, the UN Charter and respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty of all states. These principles must be upheld without any exception.

General Studies Paper 3

• Context: The Government is pushing hard for transition to Green Economy. One vital aspect of this transition is transition to Green Mobility. Enhancing the share of Electric Vehicles in transportation is necessary to ensure green mobility. The finding of Lithium deposits in J&K and possibility of developing domestic battery manufacturing ecosystem in India has led to new excitement about EVs. However, the adoption of EVs still faces several hurdles. Addressing these challenges is necessary to ensure greening and decarbonisation of the transportation sector.

EVs and their benefits:

• Electric Vehicles (EVs) have an electric motor instead of an Internal Combustion Engine (ICE). ICE-based vehicles work on fossil fuels. EVs use a large traction battery pack to power the electric motor. The power to run the vehicle is provided by the motor (instead of fuel-engine in ICE vehicles). Because an EV runs on electricity, the vehicle emits no exhaust from a tailpipe. An EV does not contain the typical liquid fuel components, such as a fuel pump, fuel line, or fuel tank.

Benefits of EVs

• Lower running costs: The running cost of an electric vehicle is much lower than an equivalent ICE vehicle. Electric vehicles use electricity to charge their batteries instead of using fossil fuels like petrol or diesel. EVs are more efficient, according to one estimate, EVs can convert ~60% of the electrical energy from the grid to power the wheels, but petrol or diesel cars can only convert 17%-21% of the energy stored in the fuel to the wheels. The efficiency combined with the electricity cost means that charging an EV is is cheaper than fuel based vehicles.
• Low Maintenance Cost: EVs have very low maintenance costs because they have lesser moving components compared to ICE vehicles (e.g., Electric vehicles don’t have gears and there are no complicated controls). The servicing requirements for EVs are lesser than the conventional petrol or diesel vehicles. Therefore, the yearly cost of running an electric vehicle is significantly low.
• Zero Tailpipe Emissions: EVs can help reduce carbon footprint because they have zero tailpipe emissions (carbon-dioxide emissions through combustion of fossil fuels). This can reduce air pollution as well as slow down the pace of global warming. EVs are thus essential for greening of transportation sector. Even if emissions from the production of electricity (like thermal power plant) are taken into account, petrol or diesel vehicles emit almost 3 times more carbon dioxide than the average EV.
• Noise Pollution: Electric Motors function silently, and produce much less noise compared to IC Engines. This can address noise pollution in urban areas or near highways.

Challenges in adoption of EVs:

• Lack of Infrastructure: At present, charging stations comprising of both slow and fast charging capabilities are available for all kinds of vehicles in the market. However, the number of the charging stations is inadequate. This implies their availability is restricted and even the ones that are deployed do not function optimally. Hence, the lack of charging infrastructure is a major hindrance to the adoption of EVs at scale.
• Performance: The EV manufacturers have been unable to implement the practicality of EVs being ‘value for money’ for consumers. The original equipment manufacturer (OEMs) are not developing EVSE (Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment). As a result, the companies that are into EVSE are unsure about the types of EVs , charging technology and its time of launch. This uncertainty does not allow the EVSE OEMs to do long term planning.
• Range Anxiety: It refers to an EV owner’s fear that the vehicle’s battery does not have sufficient charge for it to reach the destination. It is linked to how far the EV can travel on a single battery charge and the availability of charging points. This is a consequence of limited infrastructure and duration of battery charge.
• Long time for Charging Batteries: The battery charging time is much longer than the time taken for refuelling the ICE vehicles. Fast charging can result in overheating of batteries, hence it is avoided. This reduces the acceptability of EVs.
• Financial Constraints: The initial cost of owning an electric car is currently higher than that of ICE vehicles mainly due to the cost of the battery. Manufacturers anticipate cost parity by 2025 – if not sooner. They are collaborating with the electric car battery production supply chain to lower costs and improve overall efficiency. Apart from this, limited credit options and high EMI make it tough for the EV Sector to operate.
• Battery Technology: One of the most significant barriers to EV adoption is the battery manufacturing process and supply chain. To enable EVs, new mining and supply networks are required. The lithium-ion battery is the most common and frequently utilised EV energy source. India has no manufacturing capacity for Lithium-ion cells and relies completely on imports of EV batteries. This also increases costs.

Possible solutions to increase adoption of EVs:

• First, the range anxiety problem can be addressed by increased battery efficiency and expansion of charging points. Battery efficiency can be improved by further research, and expansion of charging points need greater investments.
• Second, Battery swapping can also tackle range anxiety. And it could be very efficient, especially for certain types of EVs and in certain geographies. In battery swapping, the discharged battery can be replaced by a charged battery. This will cut down the waiting time required in charging the battery.
• Third, Because of the lengthy charging time, chargers must be placed in regions where people may leave their automobiles for extended periods of time. This needs a reconsideration of the charging geography. Setting up charging stations nearer to offices, commercial complexes can play a key role.
• Fourth, To raise the overall reliability and quality of their products, there is a need to prioritise the domestic production of key components for batteries. The country’s reliance on imports of these components may have an impact on India’s international trade policies or EV objectives.
• Fifth, The Government must promote private investment in battery manufacturing plants and achieve economies of scale, while also focusing on the newer technologies.
• Sixth, Stabilizing the policy environment by focusing on tax breaks and non-fiscal incentives might assist to alleviate demand uncertainty, allowing the business to reach economies of scale
• Seventh, Using renewable energy sources can make the use of electric vehicles more eco-friendly. The electricity cost can be reduced further if charging is done with the help of renewable energy sources installed at home, such as solar panels.