General Studies Paper 3

INTRODUCTION

• The elevated levels of India’s fiscal deficit and public debt have been a matter of concern for a long time in India. Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, debt levels were among the highest in the developing world and emerging market economies. The pandemic pushed the envelope further and relative to GDP, the fiscal deficit in 2020-21 increased to 13.3% and the aggregate public debt to 89.6%. As the economy recovered after the pandemic, the deficit and debt ratios have receded to 8.9% and 85.7%, respectively.

FINANCIAL REPRESSION

• The debt-dynamics equation states that when there is no primary deficit, if the growth rate of GDP exceeds the effective interest rate paid on government bonds, the overall debt will decline.
• However, what is missed in these discussions are the distortions caused by financial repression to keep the interest rates on government borrowing low to reduce the cost.
• The statutory liquidity ratio (SLR) stipulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) requires the banking system to hold 18% of their demand and time liabilities in government securities.
• Besides, the RBI intervenes in the market through open market operations around the time when government borrowing is taken up to keep the interest rates on government borrowing repressed.
• When the interest rate on government debt is lower than the growth of GDP, the debt may decline but the financial market gets distorted.
• Thus, even when the sustainability of debt may not be threatened in the medium term, the costs of carrying high deficits and debt to the economy are heavy.
• First, on average, interest payments constitute over 5% of GDP and 25% of the revenue receipts, this is more than the government expenditure on education and health care put together.
• Second, high levels of debt make it difficult to calibrate counter-cyclical fiscal policy and constrain the ability of the government to respond to shocks.
• Third, the debt market in India is largely captive with mainly the commercial banks and insurance companies participating in it to meet SLR requirements.
• Furthermore, the rating agencies keep the sovereign rating low when deficits and debt are higher, and this increases the cost of external commercial borrowing.
• Finally, ‘today’s borrowing is taxing tomorrow’ and the burden of large deficits and debt will have to be borne by the next generation.

ON THE DEBT BURDEN

• It is clear that in the present fiscal environment, even achieving a consolidated debt-to-GDP ratio of 58.2 recommended by the 14th Finance Commission for 2019-20 would be unfeasible in the medium term.
• The Finance Commission had recommended that the Union government bring down its deficit relative to GDP from 43.6% in 2015-16 to 36.3%, and the States maintain their deficit at about 22%.
• The issue is of critical importance; therefore, the fast pacing of fiscal consolidation is imperative.
• Fortunately, after six years, Goods and Services Tax (GST) has stabilised and has shown high growth potential.
• The technology has helped to improve tax administration and improved compliance.
• With the cross-matching of GST returns with income-tax returns, income-tax compliance too is expected to improve.

ROLE OF STATE AND CENTRE

• In terms of policy interventions, this is the time to rethink the role of the state and vacate activities that should really belong to the market rather than competing with it.
• At the central level, even after much talk about disinvestment, progress has been slow.
• Equally disturbing are the employment melas to fill so-called vacant posts which have been found to be redundant.
• At the State level, it is important to guard against the return to the old pension scheme and indulge in large-scale giveaways for electoral reasons.
• Of course, redistribution is a legitimate government activity, and that is best done through cash transfers rather than subsidising commodities and services.
• Giving subsidies alters relative prices, resulting in unintended resource distortions.
• Equally important is the need to impose hard budget constraints by enforcing Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management rules in allowing States to borrow.

WAY FORWARD

• Macroeconomic stabilisation is predominantly a Union government responsibility. Therefore, the Union government should follow the rules it makes, and enforce the rules on the States effectively.

General Studies Paper 3

Context

• Recognising the need to switch from the ‘take-make-dispose’ to ‘reduce-reuse-recycle’ model, India has prioritised ‘Resource Efficiency and Circular Economy’ as one of the three core themes for deliberations in the G-20 forum.

Circular economy

• A Circular Economy is the one where products are designed for durability, reuse and recyclability and thus almost everything gets reused, remanufactured, and recycled into a raw material or used as a source of energy.
• It includes 6 R’s – Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Refurbishment, Recover, and Repairing of materials.
• India has embraced four priority areas for the circular economy during its G-20 presidency: circularity in the steel sector; Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR); circular bioeconomy and establishing an industry-led resource efficiency and circular economy industry coalition.
• There is now heightened recognition of resource efficiency and circular economy strategies within the G-20 community.

Moving to a circular steel sector

• Most G-20 member countries have committed to net zero ambitions and are working to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.
• Given the crucial role of steel in infrastructure development, its efficient utilisation is important.
• The demand for steel is poised to grow especially in growing economies such as India.
• Globally, about 7% of energy sector emission is attributed to iron and steel production.
• Transitioning towards a circular steel sector is a key strategy to tackle steel sector emissions.
• The key lies in ensuring collaboration among the G-20 member countries for knowledge sharing, technology co-development and technology transfer.
• Under India’s G-20 presidency, there is an emphasis on the significance of the EPR framework in integrating circularity throughout the value chain.

Recycling, a bioeconomy and biofuels

• Effective implementation of EPR plays a pivotal role in promoting the growth of the recycling infrastructure and establishing a streamlined waste collection system.
• With over 20,000 registered Producers, Importers, and Brand Owners (PIBOs) and over 1,900 plastic waste processors on the centralised EPR portal, India boasts one of the largest frameworks for EPR.
• India has also notified comprehensive rules for e-waste and battery waste management.
• Biowaste such as municipal and industrial waste and agricultural residue has become a global issue as much of it is burned, causing pollution, biodiversity loss and global warming.
• Combined with crops well-suited for degraded lands, biowaste can serve as valuable primary raw materials and viable substitutes for mineral resources.
• Adopting a circular bioeconomy approach will reduce the need for extracting virgin resources and provide an effective waste disposal solution.

Government initiatives

• The Government of India has been working towards the adoption of biofuels. The Pradhan Mantri JI-VAN Yojana provides financial support to integrated bio-ethanol projects to set up second generation (2G) ethanol projects.
• 2G bioethanol technology produces bioethanol from waste feedstock such as crop residues and municipal solid waste that would otherwise have no value.
• Additionally, India has also made it mandatory for coal-burning thermal power plants to use a 5% blend of biomass pellets along with coal.
• The Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro Resources (GOBAR) Dhan scheme was launched by the Government of India to convert cattle dung and other organic waste into compost, biogas, and biofuels to promote sustainable agriculture and reduce pollution.
• With over 500 functional biogas plants, the scheme has also helped create rural livelihoods and ensured improved sanitation.
• The Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) Scheme, launched in 2018 to promote the use of Compressed BioGas (CBG) as an alternative green transportation fuel, has aided the bioenergy sector by accelerating the development of infrastructure for the production, storage and distribution of CBG.

Way forward

• As industries are crucial in advancing resource efficiency and circular economy practices, India has envisioned an industry coalition in these areas.
• The coalition will also aim to achieve enhanced technological collaboration, build advanced capabilities across sectors, mobilise de-risked finance, and facilitate a proactive private sector engagement.

Conclusion

• Global platforms such as the G-20 play an important role in addressing key issues and presenting solutions by adopting a collaborative approach. Resource efficiency and circular economy have emerged as key solutions in collective efforts in tackling triple planetary challenges.

General Studies Paper 3

Context

• Flash floods during this year’s monsoon season have caused unprecedented damage to both lives and assets in Himachal Pradesh. Although climate change is expected to have played a hand in causing the high precipitation leading to these flash floods, human induced disasters resulting from planned development have played a significant role in causing such colossal losses.

Climate change

• The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) VI report has clearly stated that the Himalayas and coastal regions of India will be the hardest hit by climate change.
• In the Himalayas, there is a noticeable pattern of increased precipitation occurring in shorter periods of time.
• This year, the precipitation so far has been attributed to the combined effect of the south-west monsoon with western disturbances. The total rainfall from June to date was 511 mm.

Reworking of the development model

• Apart from climate change, anthropogenic factors have also significantly contributed to the disaster.
• The State’s development model initiated after it came into being in 1971 had been successful in transforming Himachal Pradesh into an exemplar of development for mountain States.
• This model, known as the Dr. Parmar model, focused on exemplary land reforms, robust state-led investment in social welfare, and a strong emphasis on human resources.
• However, the advent of liberalisation led to significant changes, with the Central government demanding stringent fiscal reforms and mountain States being forced to generate their own resources for fiscal management.
• The exploitation of natural resources, including forests, water, tourism, and cement production, became a major focus for development.

Building hydropower projects

• The pursuit of hydropower projects became a dominant focus for hill States, with their capacity measured in terms of megawatts (MW) to attract investments.
• One of the main reasons for the devastating impact of floods in the region is the uncontrolled construction of these hydropower projects, which have essentially transformed mountain rivers into mere streams.
• The technology employed, known as “run of the river” dams, diverts water through tunnels burrowed into the mountains, and the excavated material (muck) is often disposed of along the riverbeds.
• During periods of higher precipitation or cloudbursts, the water returns to the river, carrying the dumped muck along with it.
• This destructive process is evident in rivers like Parvati, Beas and Sutlej, as well as many other small hydropower dams.
• Moreover, long tunnels spanning 150 km have been planned or commissioned on the Sutlej river causing significant harm to the entire ecosystem.

Impacts of tourism

• The development-driven road expansion is aimed at promoting tourism and attracting a large number of visitors.
• The road-widening projects, often carried out by the National Highway Authority of India (NHAI), involve transforming two-lane roads into four-lane roads and single lanes into two- lane roads.
• The development model follows a public-private-partnership (PPP) approach, emphasising the need to complete these projects rapidly.
• However, this has resulted in bypassing essential geological studies and mountain engineering skills.
• Traditionally, mountainous regions are not cut with vertical slits but are terraced, minimising the damage to the environment.
• Unfortunately, in both the four-lane projects in Manali and Shimla, the mountains have been cut vertically, leading to massive landslides and damage to existing roads.
• Restoring these roads after such disasters is a time-consuming process, often taking months or even years.
• The consequences of such road expansions are evident during even normal rainfall, as it leads to slips and slides, amplifying the magnitude of the destruction during heavy rain or floods.
• The establishment of massive cement plants have resulted in significant land use changes that contribute to flash floods during rainfall.
• The cement plants alter the natural landscape, and the removal of vegetation leads to reduced capacity of land to absorb water.

Solutions

• A Commission of Inquiry must be instituted to bring the major stakeholders — the people — on board and discuss both the policy framework failures, as well as the peculiar aspects of the projects undertaken.
• A new architecture is required to empower local communities over their assets.
• The losses faced in the forms of culverts, village drains, small bridges, schools, other social infrastructure must be compensated; and this can be done if the assets are insured and the custodians are local communities.
• This will help to rebuild the assets quicker.

Conclusion

• With climate change a reality, humans should not add to the problem, but make adequate changes in infrastructure planning to avert disasters.

General Studies Paper 3

INTRODUCTION

• Sand plays a vital role in our daily lives. Used in its raw form, it is the foundation material for building homes. Purify the sand a little more and it becomes the foundation of the semiconductor industry. India is currently waking up to its opportunities vis-à-vis semiconductors: access to the underlying technologies has been a long-standing dream of our nation. Success on this front would place India among a small, elite group of nations that have access to the tech as well as provide thousands of highly skilled jobs.

A SEMICONDUCTOR CHIP

• At its core, a semiconductor chip is composed of transistors, which in turn are meticulously crafted from a specially selected material, typically silicon.
• One major function of a transistor is to encode information in the form of 0s and 1s, and to manipulate them to produce new information.
• These transistors have three parts: the source, the gate, and the drain (or the sink).
• The flow of current between the source and the drain points is regulated by the voltage applied to the gate.
• This arrangement gave rise to the specific meaning of ‘gate’ in computing – analogous to a physical gate, but operating with electrical means rather than mechanical ones.
• By manipulating the gate to ‘open’ or ‘close’, the transistor stores and manipulates the data in a semiconductor chip.
• The semiconductor stores information in the form of bits.
• Each bit is a logical state that can have one of two values at a time.
• The more bits a semiconductor can store and the more quickly it can manipulate them, the more data transistors can process.
• The three parts of a transistor are connected to multiple metal layers on top of them that apply voltages, forming a complex mesh of electrical connections with the transistors.
• The metal layers allow selective access to a transistor and provide the versatility required for the chip to execute multiple tasks.

NODE NUMBER

• Through history, the names of semiconductor nodes have been based on two numbers: the length of the gate and the distance between adjacent metal strips connected to the gate; the latter, when measured centre to centre, is called the pitch.
• These dimensions were often equal. The size of transistors has progressively shrunk over the years.
• The smaller a transistor becomes, the more of them can be fit on a semiconductor chip, the more data the chip can store, the more computing power there will be.
• Yet as transistors continued to become smaller, researchers spotted a discrepancy between the gate length and the metal pitch, rooted in the fact that while smaller transistors generally resulted in faster operation, reducing the size of metal wires created different problems, including not being able to transport data fast enough.
• From a technical standpoint, node names hold no significance vis-à-vis the actual physical dimensions. Instead, marketers use them to mean one node is better than a previous iteration.

NEED OF LEGACY NODES TO INDIA

• The choice of nodes, just like our choices in life, involve compromises.
• While advanced nodes range from 10 nm to 5 nm, India’s current focus is around 28 nm or higher.
• However, this doesn’t mean we are attempting to develop outdated chips.
• Starting with legacy nodes can offer numerous advantages, including equipping us for long-term success.
• While the most advanced nodes are used in devices like smartphones and laptops, many applications require legacy nodes, including robotics, defence, aerospace, industry automation tools, automobiles, Internet of Things, and image sensors – because they are more cost-effective.
• The principal revenue source for any fabrication facility, or ‘fab’, is its most advanced node.
• But almost every commercial fab also maintains the production of legacy nodes to fulfil demands in the aforementioned areas.

WAY FORWARD

• Indeed, as the demand for electric cars – together with the ever-increasing demand for complementary electronics in the car, like music players – increases, the demand for legacy nodes will also increase.
• Given these facts, the Indian government and private players are sensible to begin their semiconductor journey with the legacy nodes, improving their game over time.
• Who knows – maybe one day India will be the semiconductors hub of the world.

General Studies Paper 2

CONTEXT

• A new study found that while the physical or chemical agents responsible for eye injuries varied between children and adults, chuna was the most common alkali agent in both groups, causing 32% of all alkali burns among children.

ABOUT

• Slaked lime (chuna) is an alkali compound widely used as a binding agent, along with betel nut and other ingredients, to make paan in the Indian subcontinent.
• A new study has found that chuna is a major cause for ocular burns among children, along with household chemicals and fireworks.
• Loosely sold in plastic packets, the quicklime can puff out of the packet on to a child’s eyes.
• The alkali then burns the ocular surface and can result in eye injury. They are a tragic cause of ocular morbidity, even vision loss, especially among children.

CHUNA AND ITS RISKS

• Indian paan contains slaked lime, or chuna which is smeared onto a betel leaf and chewed along with the areca nut.
• Tobacco is also added to the paan and the alkali quickens its absorption.
• Paan consumption, especially in South and South East Asia, has been a practice from prehistoric times.
• The alkali chemically burns through the delicate tissue, causing extensive damage.
• The rim of the cornea, called the corneal limbus, is home to specialised stem cells that replenish the cornea.
• Chemical burns can destroy the limbus, compromising the cornea’s ability to repair itself.
• The risk of chemical injury to the eye is not limited to slaked lime. Household cleaning agents like toilet cleaners and other acids, as well as fireworks and even super-glue in tubes, are all liable to cause ocular injury.
• Chemical burns to the eye results in ocular burns or, in worse cases, severe loss of vision.
• They may require extensive surgical intervention, including stem-cell transplantation and corneal grafts, and will need lifelong management.
• Children with access to household chemicals like chuna, adults who work with such agents without protective eye glasses, and individuals of both age-groups when they play with firecrackers are at risk of ocular burns.

THE NECESSARY PREVENTIVE MEASURES

• Such injuries can be avoided if the substance causing them is stored safely, away from the reach of children.
• Adults who are at risk of workplace injuries — since lime is also present in whitewash, for example — will benefit from protective eye glasses.
• The study also underscores the need to improve the packet integrity of chuna sold over the counter.
• Better quality plastic and sealing and clear warning messages on the packet may help reduce the risks to children.
• People should only purchase adequately sealed packets of alkalis and acids, and insist on using them with protective glasses.

WAY FORWARD

• Finally, a key finding of this study is that close to 60% of all patients with ocular burns did not present to a hospital within 24 hours. It also found that more than 20% of the patients did not receive any eye wash when they reached, or before reaching, emergency care.
• It is imperative that the chemical is immediately washed off the burnt eye as soon as the injury happens. When the patient visits a hospital, the eye must be thoroughly irrigated to remove any substances that may be lodged in the eye.

General Studies Paper 3

CONTEXT

• The target in the Paris Agreement, to keep the planet’s surface from warming by 2 degrees Celsius by 2100, has been touted as a monumental goal. However, despite negotiations for more than two decades, global carbon emissions have not slowed. Also, the target was not derived scientifically.

SURFACE TEMPERATURE RISE

• The 1.5 degrees Celsius warming target has received considerable press along with the El Niño this year.
• Reports claim that the planet could soon cross this temperature threshold due to this natural climate phenomenon.
• But even if the world’s average surface temperature warms by more than 1.5 degrees Celsius for a year, nothing dramatically different may happen – other than the heatwaves, floods, droughts, and similar events that are already happening.
• It is a serious challenge today, yes, but a constant drumbeat of alarmist messages may only exacerbate climate anxiety and leave people feeling helpless – especially the young ones, who should be dreaming about saving the planet (or space travel) instead.

A QUESTIONABLE TARGET

• The target agreed to in the Paris Agreement, to keep the planet’s surface from warming by 2 degrees Celsius by the end of this century, has been touted as a monumental achievement, and it may well be if we actually manage to achieve this goal by 2100.
• But we must bear two things in mind. First, despite negotiations among the representatives of the world’s countries for more than two decades, global carbon emissions have shown no signs of slowing down.
• Second, the 2 degrees Celsius target was not derived scientifically. The economics Nobel laureate William Nordhaus cautiously noted in the 1970s that a warming of 2 degrees Celsius above the pre-industrial level could render the planet warmer than it has ever been in several hundred-thousand years.
• Indeed, no sooner was this figure enshrined in the Paris Agreement than the Alliance of Small Island States demanded that it be lowered to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
• Once again, the climate community, now together with the socioeconomic-modelling community, retrofitted future scenarios to meet this so-called “aspirational” target.

EARTH SYSTEM MODELS

• It is also not entirely clear whether the earth system models (ESMs) that scientists use to prepare climate projections can reliably reproduce the consequences of a world that has warmed by 2 degrees Celsius but at the scale of the Indian subcontinent.
• As of today, they certainly cannot do so accurately at scales smaller than the subcontinent, particularly for rainfall.
• The uncertainties in climate projections will be dominated by ESM deficiencies for the next decade or two.
• For the decades beyond two, the assumed scenarios for radiative forcing, resulting from greenhouse gas emissions and socioeconomic choices, determine the warming levels and rates.

UNCERTAINTIES FOR INDIA

• This brings us to the next point: the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and Russia’s invasion of Ukraine have made it abundantly clear that it is very difficult for us to imagine all the possible socioeconomic and geopolitical events that matter to the well-being of our world, including its people.
• The inherent uncertainties, however, leave India, and the economically developing world, with some tough choices.
• This group of countries needs to develop its own tools to determine the crisis’s local impacts, especially for adaptation plans that deal with unavoidable consequences.
• India’s engagement with the international community on climate mitigation, to try and avoid the unmanageable, should also keep an eye on any Frankenstein’s-monster experiments by richer countries, such as spraying dust in the upper atmosphere (a climate geoengineering solution that scientists know carries an unreasonable risk of droughts and crop losses).

WAY FORWARD

• More importantly, India should continue its leadership role by demanding that the community centred on the U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) be prepared to improve projections that quantify impacts at local scales.
• The IPCC and India must also track climate change and its consequences continuously at the socially relevant timescale of a few years.
• The country must consider non-market goods such as equity, well-being, and biodiversity more deliberately.
• Decarbonising the system is more likely to save us from ourselves.
• India can cash in on these opportunities and grow its economy by focusing on green technologies to decarbonise the future.

General Studies Paper 2

CONTEXT

• On June 27, in Bhopal, Prime Minister Narendra Modi advocated that a Uniform Civil Code (UCC) be implemented,

EGALITARIAN PURSUIT

• The fate of India’s egalitarian pursuit would ultimately depend on the resolutions of these two inter- twined questions.
• Though the Constitution recommends a UCC, the fact is that a UCC has been seen as a communal agenda for a long time.
• Even well-known, secular public intellectuals have chosen to shy away from taking a clear stand in its favour.

PERSONAL LAW AND GENDER

• India may be moving towards majoritarianism, but the arc of democracy is increasingly bending towards multiculturalism.
• Many Western liberal democracies, and not just India, are wrestling with the issue of gender equality, which is at the crux of a UCC.
• For instance, the French courts deal with such cases that often come from Muslim immigrants from Morocco and Algeria. Canada, Australia, and the U.S. often use religious-based alternative dispute resolutions. India could learn from such efforts.
• Another key issue of UCC is Muslim personal law. The All-India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB) came into existence in 1973 mainly to preserve Muslim personal law.
• But the history of personal law can be traced to as early as 1772, when the colonial state used religious doctrines to formulate personal laws.
• The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937 and the Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act, 1939 form the foundation of Muslim personal law.
• The triple talaq bill, passed in 2019, is one of the recent major changes to personal law.

ADVANTAGES OF UNIFORM CIVIL CODE

EQUALITY AND UNIFORMITY

• Elimination of gender-based discrimination.
• Ensuring equal rights and opportunities for all citizens.
• Unifying diverse personal laws to promote social harmony and national integration.

WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT

• Protection of women’s rights and interests.
• Countering regressive practices and promoting gender justice.
• Encouraging education, employment, and independence among women.

LEGAL CERTAINTY AND SIMPLICITY OF UNIFORM CIVIL CODE

• Simplification of complex legal systems.
• Avoidance of conflicting judgments and legal ambiguities.
• Enhancing access to justice and promoting the rule of law.
• Equality and Non-Discrimination

PROGRESSIVE SOCIAL REFORMS

• Discouraging outdated customs and practices.
• Promoting modernization and social progress.
• Addressing issues related to child marriage, divorce, inheritance, etc.
• Disadvantages of Uniform Civil Code

CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS SENSITIVITIES

• Potential erosion of cultural and religious identities.
• Opposition from minority communities regarding interference in personal matters.
• Preserving diversity and multiculturalism in a pluralistic society.

IMPLEMENTATION CHALLENGES

• Resistance from conservative groups and political parties.
• Logistical difficulties in enacting a comprehensive and uniform code.
• Balancing uniformity with region-specific customs and traditions.

LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE BURDENS

• Overhauling existing personal laws and legal frameworks.
• Establishing mechanisms for dispute resolution and enforcement.
• Potential strain on the judiciary and administrative systems.

SOCIOECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS

• Disruption of established social and economic structures.
• Unequal impact on different sections of society.
• Ensuring safeguards to protect vulnerable groups.

WAY FORWARD

• Recap the advantages and disadvantages of implementing a Uniform Civil Code.
• Emphasize the need for a balanced approach considering both the benefits and challenges.
• Highlight the importance of public discourse, consensus building, and careful consideration of social, cultural, and legal implications in any decision regarding the Uniform Civil Code.

General Studies Paper 2

CONTEXT

• Bail should not be denied merely because police object to it strongly and Courts should adopt a clear-headed and common-sense approach while considering the grant of bail, and should eschew the tendency to keep someone in prison merely because the police oppose bail with great vehemence.

DEFINING BAIL

• A bail is a legal procedure granted to an accused before their trial in court.
• Through the means of this legal agreement, an accused can pay a sum of money to the court in the assurance of their presence in court on the decided date and time.
• Bail is considered an important criminal procedure in democratic countries like ours.

TYPES OF BAIL (IN INDIA)

• The Indian Constitution has a provision that offers every accused a fundamental right to apply for bail. It can be offered to the accused after determining the seriousness of their offence. Here are the types of bail in India.
• Interim Bail: This is a temporary bail where the higher court calls for documents before a final decision regarding the bail application can be taken. After getting the documents, the higher court can decide if the accused will get permanent bail, an extension of the interim bail, or if the bail application will be completely rejected.
• Regular Bail: This type of bail is granted to a person who is in police custody. People who are accused of minor offences (criminal or civil in nature) usually apply for this type of bail. People can apply for regular bail under sections 437 and 439 of CrPC.
• Anticipatory Bail: This type of bail is granted by the Session Court or High Court, under section 438 of CrPC. Any person who believes that he/she will be arrested for a non-bailable offence can apply for anticipatory bail.

LEGAL POSITION OF BAIL

• Article 21 of Indian Constitution: Article 21 of the Constitution of India guarantees the protection of life and personal liberty to all persons.
• It guarantees the fundamental right to live with human dignity and personal liberty, which in turn gives us the right to ask for bail when arrested by any law enforcement authority.
• Section 438 of Code of Criminal Procedure in 1973: The provision of anticipatory bail under Section 438 was introduced in the Code of Criminal Procedure in 1973.
• The term ‘Bail’ has not been defined under the Criminal Procedure Code, 1973.
• Only the term ‘Bailable Offence’ and ‘Non-Bailable Offence’ has been defined under Section 2(a).
• It is based on the recommendation of the Law Commission of India, which in its 41st report recommended the incorporation of a provision of anticipatory bail.
• Universal Declaration of Human Rights under Article 11: The Bail provision, especially anticipatory bail, is based on the legal principle of presumption of innocence which means that every person accused of any crime is considered innocent until proven guilty.

SIGNIFICANCE OF BAIL PROVISIONS

• Bail is an essential element of any criminal justice system, as it guarantees the right to a fair trial for the accused.
• It is needed to safeguard the fundamental right to liberty, as mentioned under Article 21 “No person shall be deprived of their liberty unless prescribed so by a reasonable, fair, and just procedure”.
• According to the Supreme Court of India, Bail is a measure to balance the personal freedom of the accused and the public interest. Therefore the release is conditional.

WAY FORWARD

• Bail is a mechanism that secures liberty to the accused without providing any unjustified benefit to them. However, it has been scrutinised that the practice of granting bail is quite irregular and unclear.
• There are several judgments where the Supreme Court has observed that each case needs to be examined for its facts and circumstance before granting bail.
• The rationality behind granting or refusing bail petitions must be to establish a balance between individual rights and the interest of society.

General Studies Paper 3

INTRODUCTION

• Manipur is going through internal disturbance and ethnic conflict over the last 2.5 months, and we as the people of India failed to demand accountability from our institutions to protect the fundamental rights of Manipuris. A large section of the Indian population is unaware of the scale of violence in Manipur because of the internet shutdowns and media censorship.

INTERNET SHUTDOWNS IN INDIA

• Since 2016, India has accounted for approximately 58% of all shutdowns documented in the Shutdown Tracker Optimization Project (STOP database).
• India has also beaten Ukraine, which is at number 2 this year. India is the only G20 country that has imposed an internet shutdown more than twice.
• Data reveals that India implemented at least 84 shutdowns in 2022, the most of any country for year.

CRITICISM FOR INTERNET SHUTDOWN

• Internet shutdown orders are governed under the Temporary Suspension of Telecom Services (Public Emergency or Public Safety) Rules, 2017, under the Indian Telegraph Act, 1885.
• The 2017 Rules provide for temporary shutdown of telecom services in a region on grounds of public emergency and give senior bureaucrats from the Home Ministry at the central and state levels the power to order shutdowns.
• The 1885 Act empowers the Central government to regulate various types of telecom services including internet services and grant licenses for them.
• Using Section 144 of the Code of Criminal Procedure: It justifies the communications blockade and the continuance of it, has been a rising trend.
• Section 144 gives a magistrate the powers to enforce a general shutdown of the area if he or she believes that there could be violence in the area.

CRITICISM FOR INTERNET SHUTDOWN

• The internet blackout and restrictions on movement has severely disrupted the lives of millions.
• It has impacted everything, from college admissions to businesses filing tax returns.
• The unavailability of internet has also severely impacted businesses.
• According to ICRIER, internet shutdown had cost the Indian economy about $3.04 billion.
• According to Cellular Operator Association of India (COAI), mobile carriers lost about $8 million a day for shutdown in any of the 22 circles where they operate in the country.

RELATED COURT JUDGEMENTS:

• In Faheema Shirin versus the State of Kerala, 2019, the Kerala High Court declared “the right to Internet access as a fundamental right forming a part of the Right to Privacy and the Right to Education under Article 21 of the Constitution.”
• In Anuradha Bhasin versus the Union of India, 2020, the Supreme Court ruled “that an undefined restriction of internet services would be illegal and that orders for internet shutdown must satisfy the tests of necessity and proportionality.”

VARIOUS TECHNIQUES USED TO SHUT DOWN THE INTERNET

• DNS Tampering: By tampering with Domain Name System (DNS), authorities can redirect or block access to specific websites or services. This can be achieved by altering DNS records, redirecting DNS queries to different IP addresses, or blocking access to certain DNS servers altogether.
• IP blocking: IP blocking is a technique where specific IP addresses are targeted for blocking. Authorities can maintain a blacklist of IP addresses associated with particular websites, platforms, or services, and instruct network infrastructure to deny access to those addresses.
• URL filtering: It involves selectively blocking or allowing access to specific URLs (web addresses). Authorities can employ filtering systems or firewalls that examine the requested URLs and decide whether to allow or block access based on predefined criteria.
• Content filtering and keyword blocking: Governments can employ advanced filtering systems to monitor and block specific keywords, phrases, or content that they deem sensitive or threatening.
• Throttling or slowing down internet speeds: It involves deliberately slowing down internet speeds to the extent that it becomes impractical or impossible to access certain websites or services.

IMPACTS OF INTERNET SHUTDOWNS

• Economic impact: Data from global tracker Top10VPN shows that India suffered a loss of $ 184.3 million in 2022.
• Disruption of communication
• Limitations on education and research
• Impediment to healthcare services
• Impact on fundamental rights
• An internet shutdown can hamper the reach of the on-ground-reporting and cause underreporting of local issues.
• Disrupts political transparency

CONCLUSION

• In an Internet ban, misinformation spreads rather than abates.
• For Manipur, the video clip is a vital moment for a national awakening that must be achieved without any reputational and social harm to survivors of sexual violence and communal hatred.
• Information flows are also necessary to ensure the accountability of the State and central governments in taking steps to ensure truth, justice and reconciliation.

General Studies Paper 2

CONTEXT

• World Drowning Prevention Day is on July 25, here is an attempt to study the subject and implement various expert advisories on safe spaces; in 2021 there were36,362drowning deaths reported of which children were a large number.

DROWNING DEATHS

• Drowning deaths capture headlines from time to time, when they involve large numbers, or larger-than-life people, but what is less frequently mentioned, is the many drownings, predominantly of children that take place in India every day.
• According to the National Crime Records Bureau’s statistics for 2021, there were 36,362drowning deaths reported, forming 9.3% of accidental deaths in the country.
• Prevention, say experts, is the key to curbing drowning deaths in India as rescue and resuscitation efforts may not always be timely or feasible.
• And prevention involves several measures, at the safe behaviouralism’s infrastructural levels.

CHILDREN AT HIGH RISK

• Children are at the largest risk of drowning in India, and even reported figures are an underestimate, as most cases never make it to the hospital and are not recorded.
• The risk is highest in the one to six year age group, followed by the 6 -14 age group in India, especially in rural and remote areas.
• There is this perception that if a child grows up near a waterbody, he or she will automatically learn how to swim, but this is emphatically not true as there are two key aspects-in the drowning deaths of children: the lack of supervision and the lack of physical barriers on waterbodies.

REASONS ASSOCIATED AND MITIGATION

• Safe space- Access to and availability of safe spaces could go a long way in preventing drowning.
• Barricading – The other issue is the safe storage of water and barricading access to it where necessary. Safe storage needs to begin at home. Actionable awareness on this, for communities, is essential.
• The barricading of wells and, ponds and other small water bodies by government authorities and the prevention of unauthorised access are also necessary steps towards building safer environments and communities..
• Awareness- While accidental falls into water bodies account for-about 70%of all drowning deaths as per the NCRB, there have also been multiple cases of young people and families going for a pleasure dipor to bathe, with these outings ending in tragedy.
• Avoiding selfies- Selfies, she says, are another hazard: in an effort to get the best photograph of a scenic dam or a brimming river, many young persons have tragically lost their lives.
• The highest number of ‘selfie-deaths’, from a global search has been reported in India and drowning was amongst the topmost reasons for deaths caused while taking selfies states the World Health Organisation (WHO)’s status of drowning in South-East Asia: Country reports’,2022.
• Flood casualties- Another major cause of concern is drowning due to floods. A total of 656 people in India lost their lives due to flooding in data of NCRB.
• There is urgent need for better civic infrastructure and measures to tackle climate change.
• Post-event recovery and rehabilitative measures are also important as drowning deaths may even occur due to water-logging..
• State-specific policies that can be targeted to regions where interventions are needed like coastal villages, low-lying areas and wetland regions for instance.

CONCLUSION

• It may not always be accessible as a drinking source, but there’s water everywhere in the country: along our long coastline, in our meandering rivers and lakes and pooling in our wetlands, all crucial for survival. While we rightly work hard to safeguard these natural resources, we must also, simultaneously, safeguard people around them.