General Studies Paper-2

Context

• As Israel’s military campaign in Gaza intensifies, a growing divide has emerged within the Western world over how to respond – a rift that could reshape global diplomacy, humanitarian policy, and the future of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Overview of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict

• Historical Background: The Zionist movement (Late 19th Century) emerged in Europe, advocating for a Jewish homeland in Palestine – then part of the Ottoman Empire.
  • Jewish immigration increased, especially after World War I.
• British Mandate (1920–1948): Britain took control of Palestine and supported the creation of a Jewish national home through the Balfour Declaration (1917), sparking tensions with the Arab majority.
• UN Partition Plan (1947): UN proposed dividing Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states.
  • Jews accepted the plan; Arabs rejected it.
• Arab-Israeli War (1948): Following Israel’s declaration of independence, neighboring Arab states invaded.
  • Over 700,000 Palestinians were displaced – an event known as the Nakba (‘Catastrophe’).
• Six-Day War (1967): Israel captured the West Bank, Gaza Strip, East Jerusalem, and other territories, intensifying the occupation and settlement issues that persist today.

Root Causes of the Conflict

• Territorial Claims: Both Israelis and Palestinians claim historical and religious ties to the same land.
• Displacement and Refugees: The 1948 and 1967 wars led to mass displacement of Palestinians, many of whom still live in refugee camps.
• Jerusalem: A city sacred to Jews, Muslims, and Christians – both sides claim it as their capital.
• Security and Violence: Repeated cycles of violence, including suicide bombings, airstrikes, and rocket attacks, have deepened mistrust.
• Political Fragmentation: The Palestinian leadership is divided between Fatah (West Bank) and Hamas (Gaza), complicating negotiations.
• International Involvement:S. support for Israel and Arab backing of Palestine have globalized the conflict, often polarizing diplomatic efforts.
  • Other Causes of the Crisis include the prolonged blockade and siege by Israel; destruction of aid supplies; dangerous aid distribution system; collapse of civil infrastructure; malnutrition and famine risk.

Concerns & Challenges:

• Global Rift & Western Division Over Gaza:
• United States: It has withdrawn from ceasefire negotiations and continues to support Israel’s military and political objectives, including its controversial plan to relocate Gaza’s population into a ‘humanitarian city’ – described by some experts as resembling a concentration camp.
• European Pushback: Western leaders, including the UK’s Keir Starmer, Canada’s Mark Carney, and Australia’s Anthony Albanese, have issued strong public rebukes of Israel’s actions.
  • The recent Declaration of Palestinian statehood by the French President faced criticism from both the US and Israel.
• Joint Statement of Dissent: Recently, 25 countries including the UK, France, Italy, Japan, Canada, and the EU issued a joint statement declaring: ‘The war in Gaza must end now’.
• Global South and Arab States: Nations in the Global South and the Arab League overwhelmingly call for an immediate ceasefire and a return to negotiated two-state talks.
  • However, these states have limited leverage, and most have refrained from punitive actions like sanctions or diplomatic isolation of Israel.
• Two-State Solution Under Pressure: Recently Israel has passed resolutions rejecting Palestinian sovereignty and approved 22 new settlements in the West Bank.
  • France and Saudi Arabia are co-chairing a UN conference to revive the two-state framework, but the US and Israel remain resistant.
• Humanitarian Crisis Escalates: Over 1,000 Palestinians have died since the Israeli-American Gaza Humanitarian Foundation began operations in May 2025.
  • The World Food Program reports that a third of Gaza’s population is going multiple days without food.
  • Aid convoys have become deadly zones, with civilians reportedly shot while lining up for supplies.

Implications of the Global Rift

• Diplomatic Realignment: Countries like France and Canada may recalibrate their Middle East policies, potentially leading to new coalitions that challenge US-Israeli dominance.
• UN Dynamics: Growing support for Palestinian statehood could pressure the UN to take more assertive action, though veto powers remain a hurdle.
• Global South Influence: The rift highlights the rising influence of non-Western nations in shaping global narratives around justice and sovereignty.
• US Isolation: Continued American support for Israel may deepen its diplomatic isolation, especially among younger democracies and civil society movements.

Diplomatic Efforts and Reactions

• Ceasefire talks, mediated by Qatar and Egypt with U.S. backing, have stalled repeatedly.
• The U.S. envoy is currently pushing for a 60-day truce.
• France announced it will recognize Palestine as a state at the UN in September, joining over 140 countries in support of Palestinian statehood.
• A joint statement from 28 Western-aligned nations condemned Israel’s aid policies and civilian casualties, signaling a growing rift among traditional allies.

India’s Role in the Gaza Conflict

• Immediate Ceasefire & Humanitarian Access: At the UN Security Council, India’s Permanent Representative urged an ‘immediate ceasefire’, safe aid corridors, and release of all hostages, stressing that ‘ongoing human suffering must not be allowed to continue’.
• Two-State Solution: India supports ‘a sovereign, independent, viable Palestine’ alongside Israel within secure, recognized borders.
  • The Palestinian Ambassador to India accused Israel and the U.S. of committing genocide and highlighted the destruction of schools and libraries funded by India.

Way Forward

• Immediate Humanitarian Relief: Open border crossings and restore UN-run aid networks.
  • India, Egypt, and other regional powers must pressure Israel to comply with international law.
• Revive the Two-State Solution: Despite setbacks, the two-state framework remains the most viable path.
  • A reformed Palestinian Authority, backed by international monitors, could govern Gaza and the West Bank.
• Global Accountability: International courts must investigate alleged war crimes. Countries must condition military aid on compliance with humanitarian norms.
• Reconstruction and Recovery: A UN-led multi-year plan should rebuild Gaza’s infrastructure, homes, and schools. India could play a key role through development aid and technical expertise.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The National Education Policy 2020, marked the first comprehensive education policy completed five years since adoption.

Key Features of NEP 2020

• Structural Reform: Shift from the 10+2 system to a 5+3+3+4 curricular structure – covering ages 3-18 across foundational, preparatory, middle, and secondary stages.
• Foundational Literacy & Numeracy: Emphasis on basic reading and arithmetic skills through initiatives like NIPUN Bharat for all children by Grade 3.
• Mother Tongue & Multilingualism: Promotes instruction in the mother tongue/regional language up to at least Grade 5 (preferably till Grade 8); advances the three-language formula.
• Holistic & Multidisciplinary Education: Multiple entry/exit options in higher education; flexible subject choices across streams.
• Vocational & Skill Education: Integration of vocational courses and internships from an early stage, with at least 50% learners exposed to vocational education by 2025.
• Technology Integration: National Digital Education Architecture (NDEAR), DIKSHA, and PM e-VIDYA as digital platforms for inclusive and scalable education delivery.
• Higher Education Reforms: Push for multidisciplinary institutions, Academic Bank of Credits (ABC), National Research Foundation, and increased autonomy for colleges/universities.
• Universal Access & GER Targets: Universal school access by 2030; gross enrolment ratio (GER) in higher education to 50% by 2035.

Achievements & Impacts

• School Education: Over 6,400 PM SHRI schools upgraded as model schools in 27 states/UTs.
  • NIPUN Bharat has improved foundational learning outcomes, ASER 2024 shows remarkable progress: 23.4% of Class III students could read Grade II text in 2024, up from 16.3% in 2022.
  • DIKSHA platform has surpassed 5 billion learning sessions.
• Higher Education: Academic Bank of Credit (ABC) portal has onboarded 1,667 institutions and 32 crore Academic Bank of Credit (ABC) IDs have been created.
  • Launch of Multidisciplinary Education and Research Universities (MERUs).
• Equity, Access & Inclusion: Steps taken to mainstream out-of-school children, reduce dropout rates, and improve participation of girls and disadvantaged groups.
  • Higher education enrollment has risen significantly to 4.46 crore students.
  • Enrollment of SC, ST, Muslim, and North-East (NE) students has seen substantial growth, ranging from 36–75%.

Challenges

• Centre–State Federal Tensions: Three-language formula rejected by Tamil Nadu, Kerala citing linguistic imposition.
  • Opposition to schemes like PM SHRI Schools over centralisation fears.
• Resource Constraints: Significant financial investment is needed for infrastructure, teacher training, and digital access, especially in rural/remote areas.
• Digital Divide: Inequities in internet/device access risk exacerbating socio-economic gaps, especially among marginalized populations.
• Language Policy: Concerns over the practicality of widespread mother tongue/vernacular mediums, especially in diverse linguistic settings and for higher education.
• Privatization & Equity: Fears that increasing privatization may hamper affordability and equal access to quality education.

Way Ahead

• Strengthen Centre–State Coordination: Build contextual MoUs with states to localise NEP. Create state-level resource groups for capacity building.
• Bridging Implementation Gaps: Accelerated capacity-building, state support, and regular review of progress are critical.
• Digital and Physical Infrastructure: Investment in devices, internet connectivity, and school infrastructure must continue.
• Inclusive Pedagogy & Curriculum: Regional needs and languages must be addressed; Special focus on SEDGs and inclusive strategies.

General Studies Paper-1

Context: Recently ,Nepal faced a severe Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) on July 8, causing flash floods along the Lende river, destroying a China-built bridge and disabling hydro plants that supplied 8% of Nepal’s power.

What is Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)?

• It is the sudden, catastrophic release of water from a glacier-formed lake, often dammed by ice, debris, or bedrock.
• They produce extreme peak discharges, far exceeding normal flood levels, and can trigger destructive debris flows due to their high erosion and transport power.

Causes

• Moraine or Ice Dam Failure: Weak structural integrity due to melting or seismic activity.
• Rising temperatures: Rising temperatures have led to rapid glacier melting, forming unstable moraine-dammed lakes
• Avalanches and Landslides: Sudden mass movements into lakes can displace water and cause dam failure
• Seismic Events: Seismic Activity: Earthquakes can destabilize moraine dams or trigger landslides.
• Heavy Rainfall and Cloudbursts: Excessive precipitation increases lake volume and pressure on natural dams.

Impacts of GLOFs

• Loss of Life and Livelihoods: Events like the 2023 South Lhonak lake breach in Sikkim killed over 100 people and displaced thousands.
• Infrastructure Damage: Bridges, roads, and hydropower projects are highly vulnerable.
• Environmental Degradation: GLOFs erode riverbanks, trigger landslides, and disrupt ecosystems.
• Economic Losses: Damage to power stations, transport networks, and agriculture leads to long-term economic setbacks.

Situation In India

• The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), home to 11 river basins and 28,000 glacial lakes, faces growing threats from glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), driven by rising global temperatures and complex terrain.
• Two main lake types—supraglacial and moraine-dammed—are particularly vulnerable, with most GLOFs triggered by ice avalanches, landslides, or meltwater pressure.
• With 7,500 lakes located at high altitudes above 4,500 metres, monitoring is limited to remote sensing, which only tracks surface growth after the fact and offers little for early warning.
• Vulnerable downstream areas face severe risks to infrastructure, ecosystems, and lives, as seen in the 2023 South Lhonak GLOF in Sikkim and the 2013 Kedarnath disaster.

Government Response

• Central Government has approved National Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) Risk Mitigation Project (NGRMP) for its implementation in four states namely, Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Uttarakhand at a financial outlay of Rs.150.00 crore.
• India, through the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), is shifting from a post-disaster response approach to proactive GLOF risk reduction.
• Its Committee on Disaster Risk Reduction (CoDRR) coordinates central agencies, research institutions, and States/UTs to monitor and mitigate GLOF threats.
• A national programme was launched, initially focusing on 56 at-risk glacial lakes, now expanded to 195, ranked by risk level.
• The programme’s five key objectives are:Hazard assessment of glacial lakes,Installation of Automated Weather and Water Stations (AWWS),Deployment of Early Warning Systems (EWS) downstream,Risk mitigation through water drawdown or retention structures and Community engagement for preparedness and resilience

Progress

• India’s GLOF mitigation efforts have shown promising progress, with multi-institutional expeditions across J&K, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh returning successful outcomes.
• These teams conducted bathymetry, slope surveys, and Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) to assess lake volumes and moraine dam stability.
• Community engagement proved essential, with local cooperation critical to success.
• Monitoring stations have been installed at two lakes in Sikkim, providing real-time weather and water data.
• In the absence of automated systems, the Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) assists with manual early warnings.
• More monitoring systems and expeditions are planned post-monsoon to close critical data gaps in the region.

Suggestions and Way Forward

• Improve Early Warning Systems and cell broadcast alerts in vulnerable zones.
• Transboundary Cooperation: Collaborate with Nepal, Bhutan, and China for upstream monitoring.
• Infrastructure Planning: Avoid critical installations downstream of high-risk lakes.
• Climate Adaptation: Integrate GLOF risk into broader Himalayan climate resilience strategies.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is set to launch the NISAR satellite from Sriharikota on July 30 onboard a GSLV Mk-II rocket.

NISAR Satellite

• NISAR is an Earth-observation satellite that stands for NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar.
• It is Jointly developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Indian Space Research Organisation under a partnership agreement signed in 2014.
• It will be launched into a polar Sun-synchronous dawn-dusk orbit at 747 km altitude and an inclination of 98.4º.
• NISAR is the first satellite mission to collect radar data in two microwave bandwidth regions, called the L-band and the S-band.
• The S-band payload has been made by the ISRO and the L-band payload by the U.S.

Monitoring of Earth Surface

• The NISAR system comprises a dual frequency, fully polarimetric radar, with an imaging swath greater than 150 miles (240 km).
• This design permits complete global coverage every 12-days, allowing researchers to create time-series interferometric imagery and systematically map the changing surface of Earth.
• It can monitor various aspects in very high resolution.
• After a 90-day commissioning period, the mission will conduct a minimum of three full years of science operations with the L-band radar to satisfy NASA’s requirements,
• ISRO requires five years of operations with the S-band radar.

How NISAR Works?

• NISAR combines two types of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems:
• The L-band SAR (1.257 GHz) uses longer-wavelength radio waves that can penetrate thick vegetation and even soil, making it ideal for observing ground deformation beneath forests.
• The S-band SAR (3.2 GHz) uses shorter-wavelength radio waves that are more effective at detecting surface details such as crops, water surfaces, and urban infrastructure.
• The satellite also uses polarimetric radar technology, which involves sending and receiving radar signals in both horizontal and vertical polarizations.
• Satellite operations and commanding will be managed by ISRO, while NASA will provide the orbit maneuver plan and radar operations plan.

Objectives of the Mission

• NISAR can measure tectonic plate movements accurately. So a lot of geological, agricultural and water-related observations can be obtained from this satellite.
• It can study the water-stressing, climate change-related issues, agricultural changes through patterns, yield, desertification and continental movements precisely with respect to annual water cycle movements.

NISAR’s data can help people worldwide better manage natural resources and hazards, as well as providing information for scientists to better understand the effects and pace of climate change.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• ISRO will launch three more navigation satellites, NVS-03, NVS-04, and NVS-05, by 2026 to bolster the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).

Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC)

• Established by Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), NavIC is India’s autonomous regional navigation satellite system, designed to fulfill both civilian and military navigational needs.
• NavIC was erstwhile known as Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).
• It provides precise Position, Velocity, and Timing (PVT) services within India and extends up to 1,500 km beyond the country’s borders, forming its primary service area.
• NavIC is designed with a constellation of 7 satellites and a network of ground stations operating 24 x 7.
• Three satellites of the constellation are placed in geostationary orbit and four satellites are placed in inclined geosynchronous orbit.
• The ground network consists of a control centre, precise timing facility, range and integrity monitoring stations, two-way ranging stations, etc.
• NavIC offers two services: Standard Position Service (SPS) for civilian users and Restricted Service (RS) for strategic users.
• It provides location accuracy better than 20 meters and timing accuracy better than 40 nanoseconds across the core service area.
• Currently only four out of the seven satellites in the current constellation are fully functional.

NVS Series

• These are five second-generation NavIC satellites — NVS-01 to NVS-05 and are planned to enhance the existing constellation.
• These satellites incorporate L1 band communication, which broadens NavIC’s compatibility and usability for diverse applications.
• NVS-01, the first of the second-generation satellites, was launched in 2023.
• For the first time, an indigenous atomic clock was flown in NVS-01.
• NVS-02 was launched in January 2025.

Significance

• The first batch launched in the previous decades has been successful in establishing the Personal Navigation Device (PND) services in the country.
• The NVS series is the second generation of these satellites that are progressively being deployed to further strengthen the PND ecosystem in the nation.
• Many applications based on NavIC spanning from strategic uses, tracking of shipping vessels, time synchronization, train tracking and safety of alert life dissemination are accomplished.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• Prime Minister Modi paid a state visit to Maldives.

About

• The two sides exchanged four Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) and signed three agreements.
• Cooperation in several key sectors, including fisheries, aquaculture, tourism, environment, digital solutions, and finalising the terms of reference to launch negotiations of a Free Trade Agreement.
• India agreed to extend a fresh Line of Credit (LoC) of ₹4,850 crore, to support the island as it faces an enduring twin deficit problem.
• This is the first time that such credit is being extended to the Maldives in Indian Rupee.
• Both signed an amendatory agreement on reducing the Maldives’s annual debt repayment obligations.
• Significance: Observers of India-Maldives ties see the renewed collaboration between the countries as a necessary and positive development.

Brief on India – Maldives Relations

• Participation in Multiple Forums: Both nations are founding members of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), the South Asian Economic Union and signatories to the South Asia Free Trade Agreement.
• Economic partnership: India emerged as the Maldives’ second largest trade partner in 2022 and became the largest trade partner in 2023, with bilateral trade reaching approximately $548 million in 2023.
• Tourism: In 2023, India is the leading source market for Maldives with a 11.8% market share.
  • In March 2022, India & Maldives agreed for an open skies arrangement which will further improve connectivity between two countries.
• Defense and Security Cooperation: Since 1988, defence and security has been a major area of cooperation between India and Maldives.
  • A comprehensive Action Plan for Defence was also signed in 2016 to consolidate defence partnership.
  • Estimates suggest that almost 70 per cent of Maldives’ defence training is done by India — either on the islands or in India’s elite military academies.
• Connectivity: The Male to Thilafushi Link project, popularly known as the Greater Male Connectivity Project (GMCP), is a USD 530 million infrastructure project aimed at establishing a direct link between the capital city of the Maldives and Thilafushi, an island located in the South Indian Ocean.

Significance of Maldives:

• Strategic Importance: The Maldives is strategically located in the Indian Ocean, and its stability and security are of interest to India.
• Trade Route: Situated along crucial maritime trade routes between the Gulf of Aden and the Strait of Malacca, the Maldives acts as a “toll gate” for nearly half of India’s external trade and 80% of its energy imports.
• Counterbalancing China: Maldives presents an opportunity for India to counterbalance China’s growing influence in the Indian Ocean, fostering regional balance of power.
• Diplomatic Leverage: Strong bilateral relations with the Maldives enhance India’s leadership role in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) and in forums like the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA).

Challenges:

• Change in Power: Changes in government create uncertainty and complicate long-term cooperation projects.
• Chinese Influence: China’s growing economic presence in the Maldives, evidenced by investments in infrastructure projects and debt-trap diplomacy, is perceived as a challenge to India’s strategic interests in the region.
• Non-traditional threats: Piracy, terrorism, and drug trafficking remain concerns in the region, requiring continuous collaboration and intelligence sharing between India and the Maldives.
• Extremism and radicalization: The Maldives’ vulnerability to religious extremism and radicalization poses a security threat that necessitates joint efforts in countering such ideologies.
• Trade imbalance: The significant trade imbalance between India and the Maldives leads to resentment and calls for diversifying trade partnerships in Maldives.

Way Ahead

• The evolution of India-Maldives relations reflects a combination of geopolitical dynamics, changes in leadership, and shared regional interests.
• India is steadfast in its commitments towards Maldives and has always walked the extra mile towards building relations.
• By acknowledging and addressing the challenges, India and the Maldives can navigate the complexities of their relationship and build a stronger, more resilient, and mutually beneficial partnership for the future.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• India and the United Kingdom signed a Comprehensive Economic Trade Agreement (CETA) during Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to the U.K.

About

• This marks India’s first major FTA in over a decade and the UK’s fourth since its exit from the European Union (EU) in 2020.
• India and the UK finalized the trade pact following over three years of negotiations.
• Aim: Making trade easier and more beneficial between India and the United Kingdom.
  • The bilateral trade between the two countries stands at nearly USD 56 billion, with a joint goal to double this figure by 2030.
  • The agreement will come into effect once ratified by both countries.
• While the Union Cabinet in India has approved the deal, it still requires approval from the UK Parliament.

Key Highlights and Benefits:

• For India:
  • Duty-free access to the UK market for 99% of Indian products: This is a huge win for Indian exports, especially in labour-intensive sectors like textiles, footwear, gems and jewellery, and engineering goods, which previously faced duties of 4% to 16%.
  • Easier entry for Indian professionals: The agreement provides assured temporary access to the UK market for Indian professionals like chefs, yoga instructors, and IT specialists.
  • Exemption from social security contributions: Under the agreement on the Double Contribution Convention, Indian workers temporarily posted in the UK can be exempt from paying social security for up to three years, saving them and their employers significant money.
  • Boost for Manufacturing: Sectors like electronics, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, food processing, and plastics are expected to see a boost in exports.
  • Boost for Agriculture and Fisheries: Indian farmers and the fisheries sector will benefit from duty-free access for many agricultural and marine products, allowing them to compete better in the UK market.
• For the UK:
  • Reduced tariffs on nearly 90% of UK goods entering India: This will make British products more affordable in India.
  • Big cuts on duties for British whisky and gin: Tariffs on popular British products like whisky and gin will drop significantly, from 150% to 75% immediately and then gradually to 40% within ten years. This gives UK distillers a significant advantage in the large Indian market.
  • Lower tariffs on certain UK-made automobiles: Car duties will be reduced, improving the competitiveness of British car manufacturers in India.
  • Access to Indian federal government procurement tenders: UK firms can bid for government contracts in India worth over a certain amount, opening up a large market.
  • Benefits for financial and professional services: The agreement includes commitments that benefit UK companies in IT, financial services, and professional services like consulting and engineering.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• The International Court of Justice (ICJ) has issued a landmark advisory opinion affirming that countries have a legal obligation under international law to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Key takeaways of the  recent ruling on climate change

• The court examined the provisions of the three climate treaties — the 1994 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, and the 2015 Paris Agreement — and several other environment-related international laws that have a bearing on the climate system.
  • These include the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the 1987 Montreal Protocol for protecting ozone, the 1992 Convention on Biodiversity and the 1994 Convention to Combat Desertification.
• It concluded that climate action is a legal obligation, not optional.
• It emphasized that countries must reduce greenhouse gas emissions, with developed nations (Annexure I of the UNFCCC) having a special duty to lead and support developing nations through technology and financial aid.
• The court stated that failure to meet these obligations constitutes an “internationally wrongful act” and could result in legal consequences, including liability for damages caused by climate change.
  • States could also be held accountable for the actions of private companies if they fail to regulate them properly.

About International Court of Justice (ICJ)

• It is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (UN). It was established in June 1945 by the Charter of the United Nations and began work in April 1946.
• The seat of the Court is at the Peace Palace in The Hague (Netherlands).
• The Court’s role is to resolve legal disputes between states and provide advisory opinions on legal questions referred by authorized UN bodies and agencies, based on international law.
• It is composed of 15 judges, who are elected for terms of office of nine years by the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council.
  • It is assisted by a Registry, its administrative organ. Its official languages are English and French.

Significance

• The ruling puts renewed focus on climate accountability, particularly for developed nations that have historically failed to meet commitments.
• It supports the principle of “loss and damage,” recognizing that countries harmed by climate change are entitled to full reparation, potentially opening the door for lawsuits seeking compensation from rich nations and corporate polluters.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• India has long held the reputation of being a global supplier of skilled medical professionals, however, struggles to meet its own healthcare demands.

Global Demand Of Medical Professionals

• Countries with aging populations and shrinking healthcare workforces actively recruit medical professionals from particularly in the Global South.
  • It is projected to have a shortfall of 18 million health workers by 2030.
• Many of these countries in the Global South struggle with inadequate numbers of doctors and nurses, and experience significant outmigration of health professionals, further straining already overstretched systems.
• Estimates suggest tens of thousands of Indian health professionals migrate annually for better pay, working conditions, and career growth.

Migration Patterns: South to North Flow

• Health workers typically migrate from developing to developed nations, exacerbating the workforce gap in source countries while supporting healthcare systems in countries like Australia, Canada, the UK, and the US — where 25% to 32% of doctors are foreign-trained, primarily from South Asia and Africa(2009–2019, OECD).
  • India: Approximately 75,000 Indian-trained doctors and 640,000 Indian nurses work overseas.
  • Philippines: Renowned for exporting nurses, with over 193,000 working abroad — about 85% of all Filipino nurses.
  • Sri Lanka: Faces heavy outmigration, partially addressed by recruiting foreign professionals.

Drivers of Migration

• Push Factors: Economic: Low wages, limited career advancement; Political: Instability, conflict, and weak governance.
• Pull Factors: Higher pay, better working conditions.
  • International demand due to ageing populations and declining birth rates in developed countries.
  • Policy support like trade agreements and targeted recruitment drives.
• Countries such as India and the Philippines even encourage the export of health workers as part of national policy, largely due to remittance inflows and global presence.

Arguments in Favor of Exporting Health Workers

• Medical Diplomacy & Soft Power: Indian health professionals help fill acute shortages due to aging populations and declining birth rates, especially in the OECD countries.
• Economic Gains through Remittances: Migrant health workers send back significant remittances, contributing to India’s foreign exchange reserves and household incomes.
• It is seen as a strategic economic benefit, especially by states like Kerala.
• Skill Development & International Exposure: Working abroad allows professionals to gain advanced training, experience with cutting-edge technologies, and exposure to global best practices, which can benefit India if they return.
• Employment Generation: Exporting health workers helps absorb the growing number of graduates from India’s expanding medical and nursing colleges, reducing domestic unemployment in the sector.

Arguments Against Exporting Health Workers

• Domestic Shortages & Unequal Distribution: India has 13.86 lakh registered allopathic doctors, according to the National Medical Commission (NMC).
  • India has 1 doctor per 811 people (Nov, 2024), which is technically better than the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendation of 1:1000.
    • However, in rural areas, the ratio plunges to 1 doctor per 11,082 people, revealing a severe shortage.
    • Community Health Centres (CHCs) report over 79% shortfall in required specialists.
  • India has 1 nurse per 476 people, assuming 80% availability of the 36.14 lakh registered nurses.
    • India falls short of the WHO recommended 3 nurses per 1,000 population, needing 4.3 million more nurses to meet global standards.
• Brain Drain & Loss of Investment: The government invests heavily in training health professionals. When they migrate, India loses valuable human capital and the return on public investment in education.
• Healthcare System Strain: The migration of skilled professionals exacerbates the burden on India’s already overstretched healthcare system, especially during crises like COVID-19.
• Ethical Concerns: Developed nations benefit at the expense of developing countries’ health systems—a form of ‘care drain’ or ‘brain robbery’.
• Commercialization of Training: Migration-driven demand has led to a rise in private nursing colleges focused on overseas placement, sometimes at the cost of quality and domestic relevance.

Strengthening Domestic Systems

• Migration policy should not come at the cost of domestic health systems. Countries need to:
  • Expand health education capacity.
  • Improve working conditions and career pathways.
  • Incentivise circular migration over permanent relocation.
  • Leverage digital health platforms to enable cross-border services without physical movement.
  • Hold destination countries accountable to fair and balanced agreements.

Institutional Innovations and Lessons from the South

• India could benefit from a centralised agency for managing overseas workforce deployment and return migration.
• Kerala’s model of coordinated overseas employment and grievance redressal can guide national policy.
• Philippines’ Department of Migrant Workers provides a structured approach to managing health workforce migration.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• India’s power sector, long characterized by fragmented regulation, mounting debts, and inefficient distribution, is undergoing vital reforms to meet modern energy needs and ensure sustainable, reliable access for all.

India’s Power Sector

• Installed Generation Capacity: India is the third-largest producer and consumer of electricity worldwide, with an installed power capacity of 466.24 GW as of January 31, 2025.
• India’s Coal Based Energy: It contributes nearly 55% to the national energy mix and fuels over 70% of total power generation.
  • It has the fifth-largest coal reserves and is the second-largest consumer.
  • Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂), a harmful pollutant associated with respiratory and ecosystem damage, remains a major concern.
• Renewable Energy Growth: India is among the top nations globally for solar and wind capacity, aiming for 500 GW of non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030.
  • Total Installed Capacity (renewable energy sources, including large hydropower): 209.45 GW (As of December 2024).
  • Wind Power (48.16 GW); Solar Power (97.87 GW); Biomass/Co-generation (10.73 GW); Small Hydro (5.10 GW); Waste To Energy (0.62 GW), and Large Hydro (46.97 GW).
• Transmission Infrastructure: The country boasts one of the world’s largest synchronized power grids, enabling electricity transfer across regions.
  • India has achieved near-universal electricity access, with over 99% of villages electrified.

Key Concerns & Challenges:

• Coal Dependency: Thermal power remains dominant in India, raising concerns about environmental sustainability and supply fluctuations.
• Economic Burden on Consumers: Installing FGD systems entails high capital expenditure, especially for older plants.
  • Estimates suggested a cost increase of ₹0.25 – ₹0.30 per kilowatt-hour (kWh), which would ultimately affect power tariffs.
• Technology Gaps: Many aging plants were not designed for retrofits.
• Lack of Indigenous Supply Chains: Dependence on imports slowed progress.
• Mixed Compliance: Less than 15% of coal-based capacity had installed FGD by early 2024.
• Low Sulphur Content in Indian Coal: Indian coal naturally has low sulphur content.

Scientific Re-Evaluation of the SO2 Norms

• IIT Delhi and Ministry of Power Study: It stressed the need for a more comprehensive analysis of SO₂ emissions across the country.
  • It recommended reevaluating the need for FGDs based on empirical data rather than blanket policy mandates.
• NEERI-NITI Aayog Report:
  • Ambient SO₂ levels at all monitoring stations were well below the prescribed limit of 80 µg/m³, despite limited FGD implementation.
  • India’s geographical and climatic conditions — including higher solar radiation, stronger vertical convection, and greater ventilation — naturally reduce ground-level SO₂ concentrations.
  • The carbon footprint of FGD systems due to limestone mining, transport, and water usage posed additional environmental concerns.
  • CO₂, a long-lived greenhouse gas, has a greater atmospheric impact than SO₂, calling into question the net environmental benefit of mass FGD deployment.

Policy Revision: A Targeted and Balanced Approach

• Based on scientific analysis, the government revised its notification. Key changes include:
• Power plants are now categorized into three groups:
  • Located near large cities;
  • Situated in heavily polluted zones;
• All other plants
• Only plants in the first two categories are required to install FGDs.
• Around 78% of thermal power plants are exempt, significantly reducing unnecessary capital expenditure.

Implications for Power Sector and Energy Policy

• Financial Relief: The revised guidelines help avoid avoidable investments in FGD systems, freeing up resources for other critical infrastructure, particularly renewable energy.
• Tariff Stability: Consumers and power distribution companies benefit from stable tariffs, shielding them from unnecessary cost escalations.
• Balanced Energy Transition: India’s energy transition roadmap emphasizes renewables. However, domestic coal will remain essential for ensuring energy security in the near to medium term. The new notification supports this balanced transition strategy.

Way Forward: Rethinking Implementation

• Phased Implementation: Prioritize high-polluting regions for early adoption.
• Hybrid Solutions: Combine FGD with other NOx and particulate control mechanisms.
• Updated Deadlines With Accountability: Tie non-compliance to financial penalties.
• Funding Innovations: Use green bonds or international aid to support retrofits.
• Dynamic Norms: Encourage transition to low-sulphur coal or renewables where feasible.

Conclusion

• The revised SO₂ emission norms mark a science-led and economically pragmatic shift in India’s environmental regulation. By aligning policy with empirical research and ground realities, the government has optimized public spending, reduced environmental trade-offs, and created a more sustainable pathway for the energy sector.