General Studies Paper-3

Context

• In April 2024, the annual retail inflation for pulses was 16.84% and the imports hit a seven-year high.
• Production of Pulses in India
• India is the largest producer (25% of global production), consumer (27% of world consumption) and importer (14%) of pulses in the world.
• Pulses account for around 20 percent of the area under food grains and contribute around 7-10 percent of the total foodgrains production in the country.
• Though pulses are grown in both Kharif and Rabi seasons, Rabi pulses contribute more than 60 percent of the total production.
• Gram is the most dominant pulse having a share of around 40 percent in the total production followed by Tur/Arhar at 15 to 20 percent and Urad/Black Matpe and Moong at around 8-10 percent each.
• The regions with high productivity are Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal delta region, coastal Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, coastal and eastern Karnataka and some parts of Maharashtra.

Surge in imports of Pulses

• India’s pulses imports were valued at $3.75 billion in 2023-24 (April-March), the highest since the record $3.90 billion and $4.24 billion of 2015-16 and 2016-17.
• In quantity terms, import of major pulses totaled 4.54 mt in 2023-24, up from 2.37 mt and 2.52 mt in the preceding two fiscals, although lower than the all-time-highs of 5.58 mt, 6.36 mt and 5.41 mt in 2015-16, 2016-17 and 2017-18 respectively.
• Domestic production: There is a decline in domestic pulses production from 27.30 million tonnes (mt) in 2021-22 and 26.06 mt in 2022-23 to 23.44 mt in 2023-24, as per the Agriculture Ministry’s estimates.

Reasons for Low Production in India

• Low Productivity: Pulses have traditionally been a neglected crop because of the instability of its yields.
• Climate Variability: Pulses are often grown in rainfed areas where they are highly susceptible to climate variability, like erratic rainfall, droughts etc. which lead to yield fluctuations and lower production.
  • The El Niño-induced patchy monsoon and winter rain, is causing a decline in domestic pulses production in 2023-24
• Residual Crop: Pulses in India are considered a residual crop and grown under rain-fed conditions in marginal/less fertile lands, with very little focus on pest and nutrient management.
• Preference for Cash Crops: Farmers may prefer cultivating cash crops such as rice, wheat, and sugarcane over pulses due to assured procurement, higher market prices, and perceived lower production risks.
• Post Harvest Losses: There are post-harvest losses during storage, due to excessive moisture and attack by stored grain pests especially the pulse beetle
• With the advent of the Green Revolution, which promoted rice and wheat, pulses were pushed to the marginal lands. This resulted in decline in productivity and land degradation.
• Penetration and adoption of high yielding varieties (HYV) seeds are also low.

Measures taken by government to increase production

• PM-AASHA: To ensure remunerative prices to farmers, Government implements an umbrella scheme PM-AASHA comprising Price Support Scheme (PSS), Price Deficiency Payment Scheme (PDPS) and Private Procurement Stockist Scheme (PPSS) in order to ensure Minimum Support Price (MSP) to farmers for their produce of notified oilseeds, pulses and copra.
• Integrated scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil Palm and Maize (ISOPOM) was launched in 14 major pulses growing states.
• National Food Security Mission: The Department of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare is implementing the National Food Security Mission (NFSM)-Pulses with the objectives of increasing production through area expansion and productivity enhancement in all the districts.
• Research and Development: Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is undertaking basic and strategic research in collaboration with State Agricultural Universities for developing location-specific high yielding varieties of Pulses.
• Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojna: It was launched under which states can undertake Pulses Development Programmes.

Way Ahead

• Pulses offer a range of social, economic, and environmental benefits, making them valuable components of sustainable agriculture.
• Also consistent efforts are being made to attain self-sufficiency in pulses by 2027.
• Further enhancing farmer awareness and capacity-building initiatives can help improve productivity and production levels in the pulses sector.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: El Niño and other climate phenomena affect rainfed agriculture in many ways, leading to the challenge of food insecurity.

About Recently Observed Climate Phenomena

• Western disturbances: There has been a series of disruptive weather and climate phenomena in India, demonstrating the complexity of the precipitation system.
  • There was the Western disturbance, which usually brings much-needed moisture from European seas to the western Himalayas and parts of northern India in the winter and spring.
  • But this year, the Western disturbance remained active late into the summer, snapping at the heels of the southwest monsoon.
• El Niño: An El Niño phase of the quasi-periodic El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) — a phenomenon in the eastern and central tropical Pacific Ocean — was intensifying and likely to affect the southwest monsoon.
  • Studies have found that 43% of heavy rainfall events in the northeast monsoon (including the 2015 Chennai floods that caused widespread devastation) coincided with an El Niño.
• Declining but intensifying monsoon precipitation: The amount of monsoon precipitation has been declining since the 1950s, attributed by some climate scientists to the reduction in land-sea thermal gradient due to the warming of the seas.
  • However, indications of increased frequency of intense rain events and greater heat and moisture stress for people and ecosystems align with predictions of warming’s impact on the atmosphere’s water-holding capacity and acceleration of the hydrological cycle.

Challenges of Food Security

• Climate phenomenon affecting plant growth: The El Niño and other climate phenomena affect rainfed agriculture in many ways, from delaying the start of rains, and affecting sowing, to hot temperatures that may negatively influence plant growth and soil moisture.
• Rainfed agriculture: Our daily diet in India — from cooking oil to diverse foods — also requires 3,268 litres of water per person per day on average, subject to regional variability.
  • Some 75% of this footprint is green water, demonstrating the importance of rainfed agriculture to our food and nutritional security.
• Issues in irrigated areas: Even in irrigated areas, many dominant crops require green water for different extents.
  • For example, in kharif season, rice paddy under irrigation uses green water to the tune of 35%.
  • Many staple crops like tur dal, soybean, groundnut, and maize also rely considerably on green water at this time. In the 2015-2016 El Niño year, soybean production in India declined by 28% from the 2013-2022 average.
• Increased cost of preparing food: While the cost of preparing a thaali at home has risen by 65% in the last five years, in this period, the average wage of a manual worker rose by 38% and that of a salaried worker by 28%.
  • The implied reduction in purchasing power is considerable, and it would be reasonable to expect that food consumption has been impacted.

Suggestions

• Reducing dependence on water-intensive crops: In terms of agriculture and food security, there is now an emphasis on reducing dependence on water-intensive crops, with millets being the crops of choice.
  • Shifting to less water-intensive crops may reduce vulnerability of our food systems to phenomena like El Niño.
• Focussing on increasing Agricultural yield: Agricultural yield is lower in India than in East Asia, pointing to the potential for an increase.
  • It is necessary to intervene on the supply side to ensure that food is produced at a steady price by raising the yield on land.
  • Attention is needed to extend irrigation to 100% of the net sown area, an end to restrictions on leasing of land, a quickening of agricultural research and the re-institution of extension.
• Improving weather forecasts: The government, both at the Centre and in the States, along with farmers, benefit from forecasts of phenomena like El Niño and their impact on the monsoon, and improvements in short-term weather forecasts and early warning systems for both intense rain and dry spells.
• Efficient management of water reservoirs: Based on decades of experience, it is clear that alternative short-term and long-term management of our dams and reservoirs is required to reduce the risk of dam-based flood disasters and ecological damage to aquatic ecosystems.
• Green Revolution: Reeling under extreme food shortage following two successive droughts, the government orchestrated (by framing Green Revolution) a supply-side response by providing farmers with high-yielding seeds, cheap credit, and assured prices through procurement.
  • This succeeded spectacularly. Within a few years India was no longer dependent on food imports.
• Correcting the mistakes of Green Revolution (GR): Mistakes made while implementing GR, among them the rampant use of chemical fertilizer, fuelled by subsidy, which degraded the soil.
  • There was also the reliance on procurement prices rather than productivity increase to ensure farm incomes, which fuelled inflation.
  • We also see that the policy was almost exclusively focused on cereals rather than pulses, the main source of protein for most Indians.
  • However, rather than arguing on the errors made in an extraordinarily successful economic policy intervention, we should be correcting them now.

Way Ahead

How we respond as a society and in terms of governance to the water and climate change crisis, which links food, water, and ecological security through diversifying our agro-food systems, a lower dependence on blue water, rejuvenating our rivers, and sustainable water-sharing between humans and nature will to a great extent determine the well-being of 1.4 billion people.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The University Grants Commission (UGC) has recently unveiled regulations to facilitate the entry of Foreign Higher Educational Institutions (FHEIs) in India.

About

• India has surpassed China with a greater number of universities featured in the prestigious QS World University Rankings.
• FHEIs’ entry can be likened to India’s 1991 market reforms, when the government dismantled barriers to trade and foreign investment and promised a level-playing field for all players.
• Technically, universities like Oxford, Cambridge, or Harvard can now open campuses in India.
  • But it will ultimately depend on whether those universities find the Indian market attractive enough to invest in a branch campus in the country.
  • Higher Educational Institutes in India ( All-India Survey of Higher Education (AISHE), 2021-22)
• The total number of Universities / University level institutions registered is 1,168, Colleges 45,473 and Standalone Institutions 12,002.
• 341 Universities/University level institutions have been established since 2014-15.
• 17 Universities (of which 14 are State Public Universities) and 4,470 Colleges are exclusively for women.
• A total of seven Indian institutions feature in the top 100 ranks of QS World University Rankings.
• The Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IIT Bombay) grabbed the top spot in India with the 40th position followed by IIT-Delhi at the 46th position and IIT-Madras at the 53rd position.

Major Flaws in Higher Education in India

• Limited Access: Despite efforts to improve access to higher education, many students in India still face barriers such as financial constraints, lack of infrastructure, and limited availability of quality institutions, particularly in rural areas.
• Quality Disparities: There is a significant gap in the quality of education between top-tier institutions and others.
  • The premier institutes like the IITs (Indian Institutes of Technology) and IIMs (Indian Institutes of Management) are world-renowned, but the majority of colleges and universities struggle with outdated curriculum, inadequate faculty, and insufficient resources.
• Outdated Curriculum: The curriculum in many institutions often lags behind industry requirements and global standards. There is a need for regular updates to ensure graduates are equipped with relevant skills for the job market.
• Youth Migration: In 2022, nearly 4.5 lakh Indian students went abroad for studies, this means a huge outflow of capital from India and this also shows that there is a huge interest among Indian students to study in foreign universities.
• Lack of Research and Innovation: Indian universities typically prioritize rote learning over research and innovation. There is a need to foster a culture of research and provide adequate funding and infrastructure to support it.
• Teacher Shortage and Quality: There is a shortage of qualified faculty in many disciplines, leading to a reliance on temporary and underqualified teachers.
  • Additionally, the quality of teaching varies widely, affecting the learning outcomes of students.
• Employability Gap: Despite having a large pool of graduates, there is a significant gap between the skills possessed by graduates and the skills demanded by employers.
  • This results in high rates of unemployment and underemployment among graduates.
• Overemphasis on Degrees: The focus on obtaining degrees rather than acquiring practical skills often leads to a disconnect between education and employment.
  • Many students pursue higher education solely for the credential rather than for the knowledge and skills gained.
  • Government Initiatives to Improve Higher Education in India
• National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: The NEP 2020 is a comprehensive reform document aimed at transforming the entire education system, including higher education, to meet the needs of the 21st century.
  • It focuses on aspects such as holistic and multidisciplinary education, flexibility in curriculum, promotion of research and innovation, and increased access and equity.
• Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA): Launched in 2013, RUSA aims to improve the overall quality of state higher educational institutions by providing strategic funding, infrastructure development, faculty improvement, and governance reforms.
• SWAYAM (Study Webs of Active-Learning for Young Aspiring Minds): SWAYAM is an online platform that offers free courses from high school to postgraduate level across various disciplines.
  • It provides access to quality education resources to students, especially those in remote areas, and promotes lifelong learning.
• Institutions of Eminence (IoE) Scheme: Under this scheme, certain higher education institutions are identified as “Institutions of Eminence” with the aim of granting them greater autonomy and financial assistance to achieve world-class status.
  • These institutions are expected to compete globally and attract top faculty and students.
• National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF): NIRF was launched to rank higher education institutions in India based on various parameters such as teaching, learning, research, outreach, and inclusivity.
  • This initiative aims to promote healthy competition among institutions and encourage them to improve their overall quality.
• National Research Foundation: NRF aims to get colleges and universities involved in scientific research. Less than one per cent of the nearly 40,000 institutions of higher learning in the country were currently engaged in research.
  • NRF plans to address this lacuna by encouraging active researchers, whether serving or retired, to take up NRF professorships at universities and colleges to start or improve their research cells in collaboration with the existing faculty.

Way Ahead

• Merely having more universities than China will not suffice. The core purpose of our higher education system must seek excellence.
• A robust and thriving research culture is the backbone of higher educational institutes to become world-class.
• India’s higher education system is at the cusp of a transformative change. The sustained efforts and effective implementation are essential to ensure meaningful progress and positive outcomes.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Recently, the CEO of the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) highlighted that India has witnessed a sharp increase in cybercrime incidents.

About the Cyber Crime

• It is the use of digital technologies such as computers and the internet to commit criminal activities.
• It includes financial fraud (credit card fraud, online transaction fraud), crime against women and children with regard to sexually explicit material, and deep fake content etc.
• Reasons for increase in Cybercrime: Rapid Digitalisation, Large Internet User Base, Inadequate Cybersecurity Infrastructure, Insider Threats, Payment Systems Vulnerability, and Vulnerable population because of Low digital literacy etc.

Rise in Cybercrime in India

• Daily Complaints: India is facing a rise in cybercrime, averaging more than 7,000 complaints daily up to May this year.
• Cyber Fraudsters’ Locations: Many cyber fraudsters targeting India are believed to be operating from key locations in Southeast Asia, including Pursat, Koh Kong, Sihanoukville, Kandal, Bavet, and Poipet in Cambodia; Thailand; and Myawaddy and Shwe Kokko in Myanmar.
• Upward Trend in Cybercrime: Complaints surged by 113.7% from 2021 to 2022 and 60.9% from 2022 to 2023. The number of complaints has steadily increased over the years.

Cyber Fraud Incidents in 2024

• Types of Scams: Most cyber fraud incidents involve fake trading apps, loan apps, gaming apps, dating apps, and algorithm manipulation.
• Reported Scams: Between January and April, the I4C received 4,599 complaints about digital fraud amounting to Rs 1,203.06 crore.
  • Additionally, trading scams, investment scams, and dating scams were reported.

Modus Operandi of Fraudsters

• Contact Method: Victims are contacted via normal call from India number using call spoofing.
• Impersonation: The fraudsters also make calls posing as officers of various law enforcement agencies.

Challenges and Necessities

• Alarming Trend: This surge in cybercrime cases suggests an alarming trend and underscores the increasing challenges related to cybersecurity in the country.
• Need for Enhanced Cyber Defence: This also highlights the necessity for enhanced cyber defence mechanisms, public awareness, and robust legal frameworks to tackle the burgeoning issue of cybercrime.
• Challenges and impacts of cyber-crime are multifaceted that include Financial Losses, Data Breaches, Identity Theft, Disruption of Services, Loss of Intellectual Property, Reputational Damage, and National Security Concerns etc.

Actions Taken by Law Enforcement

• Freezing of Mule Bank Accounts: The I4C and various law enforcement agencies have frozen nearly 325,000 mule bank accounts in the past four months.
• Blocking of SIM Cards and Social Media Accounts: Additionally, 530,000 SIM cards and 3,401 social media accounts, including WhatsApp groups, have been blocked.

Related Key Provisions

• Constitution of India: According to the Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution, cybercrimes are within the purview of State Subjects.
• Information Technology Act, 2000: Section 43, 66, 70, and 74 of the IT Act, 2000 deal with hacking and cyber-crimes.
• Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) issues alerts and advisories regarding latest cyber threats/vulnerabilities and countermeasures to protect computers and networks on a regular basis.
• National Cyber Coordination Centre (NCCC) has been set up to generate necessary situational awareness of existing and potential cyber security threats and enable timely information sharing for proactive, preventive and protective actions by individual entities.

Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C)

• It is an initiative of the Union Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) to deal with cyber crime in the country in a coordinated and comprehensive manner.
• It focuses on tackling all the issues related to Cybercrime for the citizens, which includes improving coordination between various Law Enforcement Agencies and the stakeholders.

Objectives

• To act as a nodal point to curb Cybercrime in the country.
• To strengthen the fight against Cybercrime committed against women and children.
• Facilitate easy filing Cybercrime related complaints and identifying Cybercrime trends and patterns.
• To act as an early warning system for Law Enforcement Agencies for proactive Cybercrime prevention and detection.
• Assist States/UTs in capacity building of Police Officers, Public Prosecutors and Judicial Officers in the area of cyber forensic, investigation, cyber hygiene, cyber-criminology, etc.

Strengthening the Cyber Security

• Data localisation: Most cyber crimes are trans-national in nature with extra-territorial jurisdiction. Therefore, ‘data localisation’ is required, so that enforcement agencies are able to get timely access to the data of suspected Indian citizens.
• Upgrade cyber labs: The cyber forensic laboratories of States must be upgraded with the advent of new technologies.
• Cyber insurance: Designing cyber insurance policies tailored to the unique requirements of diverse businesses and industries is essential.
• Stringent Data Protection Law: Data necessitates a robust data protection framework in India. India’s Personal Data Protection Bill, 2019 is a good step in the right direction.

Related International Measures

• Budapest Convention: It is the 1st international treaty to address cybercrime.
  • India is not a signatory to the treaty.
• Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN): It is a US-based not-for-profit organisation for coordinating & maintenance of several databases.
• Internet Governance Forum: It is the United Nations forum for multi-stakeholder policy dialogue on Internet governance issues.

Conclusion

• As the digital landscape continues to evolve, so does the nature of cyber threats. It is crucial for individuals, businesses, and the government to stay vigilant and proactive in the face of these challenges.
• With collective efforts and robust cybersecurity measures, we can hope to mitigate the risks and safeguard our digital space.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• Recently, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MOSPI) released the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) for the first quarter (Q1) of 2024.

About the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)

• It was launched by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) in April 2017, considering the importance of availability of labour force data at more frequent time intervals.
• The data on Employment and Unemployment is collected through Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS).

Objectives:

• To estimate the key employment and unemployment indicators (viz. Worker Population Ratio, Labour Force Participation Rate, Unemployment Rate) in the short time interval of three months for the urban areas only in the ‘Current Weekly Status’ (CWS).
• To estimate employment and unemployment indicators in both ‘Usual Status’ (ps+ss) and CWS in both rural and urban areas annually.

Key Findings of PLFS

• Unemployment Rate (UR) in Urban Areas: It decreased from 6.8% (Q1 2023) to 6.7% (Q1 2024) for persons of age 15 years and above.
• For Male: It increased from 6.0% to 6.1%
• Female UR decreased from 9.2% to 8.5%
• Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) in Urban Areas: It has shown an increasing trend from 48.5% (Q1 2023) to 50.2% (Q1 2024) for persons of age 15 years and above.
  • Male LFPR: It increased from 73.5% to 74.4%
  • Female LFPR: It increased from 22.7% to 25.6%
• Worker Population Ratio (WPR): Increasing Trend in WPR for persons of age 15 years and above from 45.2% (Q1 2023) to 46.9% (Q1 2024).
  • For Male: It increased from 69.1% to 69.8%
  • For Female: It increased from 20.6% to 23.4%

State Wise Data on Unemployment

• Kerala had the highest unemployment rate in the 15-29 age group in urban areas in Q1 2024, while Delhi had the lowest joblessness rate among 22 states and Union territories.
• J&K, Telangana, Rajasthan and Odisha were among the five states with the highest unemployment rates in the 15-29 years category.
• Three out of the 22 states and UTs recorded unemployment rates in single digits – apart from Delhi (3.1%), the other states were Gujarat (9%) and Haryana (9.5%).
  • The other two states among the five with low joblessness rates were Karnataka (11.5%) and Madhya Pradesh (12.1%).
• PLFS data showed that the unemployment rate for women was the highest in J&K at 48.6%, followed by Kerala (46.6%), Uttarakhand (39.4%), Telangana (38.4%) and Himachal Pradesh (35.9%).
• Related government initiatives to boost overall employment scenario in India:
• Atmanirbhar Bharat Rojgar Yojana (ABRY): Launched as part of the Atmanirbhar Bharat package 3.0, to incentivise employers for creating new employment along with social security benefits and restoration of loss of employment during the Covid-19 pandemic.
• Pradhan Mantri Rojgar Protsahan Yojana (PMRPY): tTo incentivize employers for the creation of new employment.
• National Career Service (NCS) Project: It provides a variety of career-related services like job matching, career counselling, vocational guidance, information on skill development courses, apprenticeships, internships, etc.
• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): It provides at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year to every rural household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work.
• Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Rojgar Abhiyaan (PMGKRA): To boost employment and livelihood opportunities for returnee migrant workers and similarly affected persons in rural areas.
• Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY): It facilitates self-employment by providing collateral-free loans up to Rs. 10 lakh to micro/small business enterprises and individuals.
• Garib Kalyan Rojgar Abhiyaan (GKRA): To provide immediate employment and livelihood opportunities to the distressed and to saturate the villages with public infrastructure and creation of livelihood assets.
• PM GatiShakti: It is a transformative approach for economic growth and sustainable development, driven by seven engines, namely, Roads, Railways, Airports, Ports, Mass Transport, Waterways, and Logistics Infrastructure.

General Studies Paper -1 

Context: The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has forecasted above-normal rain in the upcoming monsoon season in India, with “favourable” La Nina conditions expected to set in by August-September.

About

• El Niño and La Nina are climate phenomena that are a result of ocean-atmosphere interactions, which impact the temperature of waters in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.
• El Niño events are far more frequent than La Nina ones. Once every two to seven years, neutral ENSO conditions get interrupted by either El Niño or La Nina.
• Coriolis Effect: The Earth’s east-west rotation causes all winds blowing between 30 degrees to the north and south of the equator to slant in their trajectory.
• As a result, winds in the region flow towards a southwesterly direction in the northern hemisphere and a northwesterly direction in the southern hemisphere. This is known as the Coriolis Effect.
• Due to this, winds in this belt called trade winds blow westwards on either side of the equator.
• Normal Conditions: During normal conditions in the Pacific ocean, trade winds blow west along the equator, taking warm water from South America towards Asia.
• To replace that warm water, cold water rises from the depths — a process called upwelling.
• The warmer surface waters near Indonesia create a region of low-pressure area, causing the air to rise upwards. This also results in formation of clouds and heavy rainfall.
• The air flow also helps in building up the monsoon system which brings rainfall over India.

La Niña:

• It means Little Girl in Spanish. La Niña is also sometimes called El Viejo, anti-El Niño, or simply “a cold event.” La Niña has the opposite effect of El Niño.
• The trade winds become stronger than usual, pushing more warmer waters towards the Indonesian coast, and making the eastern Pacific Ocean colder than normal.

Impacts

• Increased rainfall: Regions such as Southeast Asia, northern Australia, and parts of South America often experience above-average rainfall during La Niña events.
• Except in east and northeast India, all remaining regions are expected to receive normal or above seasonal rainfall during La Nina.
• Similar to India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia and their neighbouring countries receive good rainfall during a La Nina year.
• Drier conditions in some areas: Conversely, regions like the southwestern United States and parts of Africa experience below-average rainfall, leading to drought conditions.
• Stronger Atlantic hurricanes: La Niña tends to reduce wind shear in the Atlantic, creating conditions that are more conducive to the development of hurricanes.
• For instance, the Atlantic Ocean churned out a record 30 hurricanes during the La Nina year 2021.
• Cooler temperatures: Some areas experience cooler temperatures than normal, particularly in the Pacific Northwest of the United States and parts of South America.

What is El Nino?

• El Niño means Little Boy in Spanish. South American fishermen first noticed periods of unusually warm water in the Pacific Ocean in the 1600s.
• It is a climate phenomenon characterized by the periodic warming of sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean.
• During El Niño, trade winds weaken. Warm water is pushed back east, toward the west coast of the Americas and as a result cold water is pushed towards Asia.

Impact of El Nino

• Low Rainfall: El Niño often correlates with below-average monsoon rainfall in India, leading to droughts in many parts of the country. This can have severe consequences for agriculture, water resources, and the economy.
• Increased Temperature: El Niño also lead to an increase in temperatures across various parts of India.
• Forest Fires: The drier conditions associated with El Niño increase the risk of forest fires, particularly in regions with dense vegetation. These fires cause environmental damage, loss of biodiversity, and air pollution.
• Water Scarcity: Decreased rainfall during El Niño events lead to water scarcity in many parts of India. This affect drinking water supplies, irrigation for agriculture, and hydropower generation.
• Impact on Fisheries: El Niño also affect marine ecosystems and fisheries along India’s coastline. Changes in sea surface temperatures and ocean currents disrupt fish migration patterns and lead to fluctuations in fish populations.

Conclusion

• Scientists say that climate change is set to impact the ENSO cycle. Many studies suggest that global warming tends to change the mean oceanic conditions over the Pacific Ocean and trigger more El Niño events.
• The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has also said that climate change is likely to affect the intensity and frequency of extreme weather and climate events linked to El Niño and La Nina.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) will now be open to new members and observers after a historic first charter of the grouping came into force.

Background

• The seven members of BIMSTEC first signed the charter in 2022 at the fifth BIMSTEC summit held virtually in Colombo, Sri Lanka.
• However, it could come into force only after every country ratified the document, which finally happened in April 2024.

What is BIMSTEC?

• BIMSTEC is a regional organization that was established in 1997 with the signing of the Bangkok Declaration.
• Permanent Secretariat: Dhaka, Bangladesh
• Members: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Thailand, Myanmar and India.
• Significance: The BIMSTEC countries are home to 22 percent of the total world population and have a combined gross domestic product (GDP) of about $3.6 trillion.

About Charter

• The charter establishes a legal and institutional framework for cooperation among the seven countries surrounding the Bay of Bengal.
• The document also gives the organization a legal personality, establishes a mechanism for admitting new members and observers, and enables negotiations and agreements with countries and other regional and international groupings.

Significant aspects of charter

• According to the charter all decisions will be taken by consensus among current members.
• The charter gives the institution a clear process for the admission of new members, including adding the criteria of geographical contiguity or “primary” dependence on the Bay of Bengal for trade and transport purposes.
• The charter also highlights that the leaders’ summit will be held every two years and indicates the procedure for the rotational chairmanship of the organization.
• It also empowers the BIMSTEC ministerial meeting to set up any further criteria as required.

BIMSTEC and SAARC

• The idea of BIMSTEC also gained prominence after the 2016 Uri attack when India was able to get SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) nations on its side to boycott the organizations’ summit, which was to be held in Pakistan.
• SAARC and BIMSTEC focus on geographically overlapping regions. But, they are not equal alternatives.
  • SAARC is a purely regional organization, whereas BIMSTEC is inter-regional and connects both South Asia and ASEAN.
  • Unlike SAARC, which is burdened by India-Pakistan hostilities, BIMSTEC is relatively free of sharp bilateral disagreements and promises to provide India with a co-operative sphere of its own.
• India is often accused by Nepal for deactivating SAARC in favor of BIMSTEC due to the membership of Pakistan in the former organization.

Way Ahead

• The BIMSTEC Charter is a testament to the shared commitment of the Member States to promote regional cooperation in key sectors such as security, connectivity, trade, agriculture, environment, science and technology, agriculture and people to people contact.
• It is an important step towards promoting regional cooperation and allowing for agreements to be signed with other countries and regional organizations.

Key Findings of report

• Almost half of the world’s rangelands are degraded due to climate change, population growth, land-use change and growing farmlands.
• Pastoralists are a marginalized community with little influence on policy decisions, resulting in uncertainty over access to common land and land rights.
• Grasslands have been virtually overlooked in environmental conservation and ecosystem restoration policies in favor of forestry-based interventions, which includes converting natural grasslands into plantation forests or other uses.
• Degradation: Less than 5 percent of India’s grasslands fall within protected areas, and the total grassland area declined from 18 to 12 million hectares between 2005 and 2015.

What are Rangelands?

• Rangelands are characterized by low vegetation and comprise grasslands, shrublands, wetlands, desert, semi-arid land, mountain pastures, plateaus and tundra.
• They cover 80 million sq km, which is 54 percent of the earth’s land surface.
• These rangelands are an important ecosystem to fight against climate change as they act as carbon sinks and prevent soil erosion, land degradation and desertification.
• Rangelands in India
• Rangelands occupy about 121 million hectares in India and a large part (around 100 million hectares) of these is considered underutilized.
• The report highlighted that around 120 million hectares of land in India is degraded due to water erosion (82 million hectares), wind erosion (12 million hectares), chemical contamination (25 million hectares), and physical degradation (1 million hectares).

Pastoralist communities in India

• Pastoralists contribute to the economy through livestock rearing and milk production.
• The population of pastoralist communities, comprising groups such as Maldharis, Van Gujjars and Rabaris, among others, is estimated to be 20 million or more.
• The livestock sector of the economy contributes 4 percent of national gross domestic product and 26 per’ cent of agricultural gross domestic product.
• India accounts for 20 percent of the world’s livestock population.

Government measures

• Forest Rights Act 2006 has helped pastoralists obtain grazing rights across states in the country.
• Government through welfare schemes has provided assistance to pastoralists under the National Livestock Mission, Animal Husbandry Infrastructure Development Fund and the Rashtriya Gokul Mission on sustainable dairy production.
• India has launched several programmes to combat land degradation including the National Afforestation Programme, Green India Mission, and Watershed Development Component.
• Suggestion
• Integrated climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies with sustainable rangeland management plans are needed to increase carbon sequestration and storage while boosting the resilience of pastoralist and rangeland communities.
• Avoid rangeland conversion that diminish the diversity and multifunctionality of rangelands, especially on indigenous and communal lands.

Adopt and support pastoralism-based strategies that help mitigate harms to rangeland health, such as climate change, overgrazing, soil erosion, invasive species, drought, and wildfires.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The World Bank has released the Water For Shared Prosperity report at the 10th World Water Forum in Bali, Indonesia.

• World Water Forum
  • The World Water Forum is organized every three years between the World Water Council and a host country.
  • The Forum provides a unique platform where the water community and key decision makers can collaborate and make long-term progress on global water challenges.
  • The Forum brings together participants from all levels and areas, including politics, multilateral institutions, academia, civil society and the private sector, among others

About

• It highlights the global inequalities in water access and recommends pro-poor and inclusive interventions to improve water security and boosting shared prosperity.
• The report emphasises the widening gap in access to water resources and services, with implications for human and economic development worldwide.

Major Highlights of the Report

• Water determines prosperity through three primary channels: as safe drinking water, as an essential input for various economic sectors, and as a critical support for ecosystems.
• Access to Safe Water: In 2022, 2.2 billion people lacked access to safely managed drinking water services, while 3.5 billion lacked access to safely managed sanitation.
  • Low-income countries, in particular, have seen regression in access to safe drinking water, with an additional 197 million people lacking access since 2000.
• Rural – Urban Gap: Eight out of ten people who do not have access to basic drinking water and sanitation services live in rural areas, and little progress has been made in closing the rural-urban access gap in low-income countries over the last two decades.
• Most Water Stressed: Hotspots in the Sahel, Southeastern Africa, and South and Central Asia are the most water stressed.
  • The Democratic Republic of the Congo has more than half of Africa’s total water resources.
• Climate change: Climate change is also increasing water-related risks.
  • Between 2000 and 2021, developing countries experienced more severe droughts and longer-lasting floods than advanced economies, which had long-term consequences for nutrition, school attendance, and economic welfare.
• Risk of Drought: Globally, over 800 million people are at high risk of drought, with twice as many living in flood-prone areas.
• Employment: Water-intensive sectors account for 56 percent of jobs in low-income countries but only 20 percent in high-income countries.
  • In Sub-Saharan Africa, where water-dependent jobs account for 62 percent of total employment, low rainfall availability frequently results in significant negative gross domestic product or GDP growth.
• Poor Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH): At the global level, during 2019 alone, poor WASH conditions contributed to between 1.4 and 4.2 million deaths.
  • Lack of access to WASH also affects optimal cognitive development, school attainment, labor productivity, and income.

Recommendations

• Enhancing resilience to extreme hydro-climatic risks for the poorest by
  • Setting up robust and inclusive early-warning systems.
  • Developing insurance programs for weather risks.
  • Scaling up social protection schemes to assist vulnerable communities impacted by floods, droughts, or both.
• Improving water resources development, management, and allocation by
  • Scaling up nature-based solutions through innovative financing schemes and evidence-based approaches.
  • Enabling coordination of and cooperation for water allocation through information sharing and financial incentives.
  • Adopting water accounting to inform water allocation decisions.
• Improving equitable and inclusive service delivery by
  • Scaling up financing through institutional and tariff reforms.
  • Creating an enabling regulatory and policy environment to promote innovations.
• Improving coordination of institutions responsible for water, health, education, and urban planning.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: According to the report by the UN Convention on Combating Desertification (UNCCD), pastoralists in India, who rear livestock and depend on grasslands, need better recognition of their rights and access to markets.

Key Findings of report

• Almost half of the world’s rangelands are degraded due to climate change, population growth, land-use change and growing farmlands.
• Pastoralists are a marginalized community with little influence on policy decisions, resulting in uncertainty over access to common land and land rights.
• Grasslands have been virtually overlooked in environmental conservation and ecosystem restoration policies in favor of forestry-based interventions, which includes converting natural grasslands into plantation forests or other uses.
• Degradation: Less than 5 percent of India’s grasslands fall within protected areas, and the total grassland area declined from 18 to 12 million hectares between 2005 and 2015.

What are Rangelands?

• Rangelands are characterized by low vegetation and comprise grasslands, shrublands, wetlands, desert, semi-arid land, mountain pastures, plateaus and tundra.
• They cover 80 million sq km, which is 54 percent of the earth’s land surface.
• These rangelands are an important ecosystem to fight against climate change as they act as carbon sinks and prevent soil erosion, land degradation and desertification.

Rangelands in India

• Rangelands occupy about 121 million hectares in India and a large part (around 100 million hectares) of these is considered underutilized.
• The report highlighted that around 120 million hectares of land in India is degraded due to water erosion (82 million hectares), wind erosion (12 million hectares), chemical contamination (25 million hectares), and physical degradation (1 million hectares).
• Pastoralist communities in India
• Pastoralists contribute to the economy through livestock rearing and milk production.
• The population of pastoralist communities, comprising groups such as Maldharis, Van Gujjars and Rabaris, among others, is estimated to be 20 million or more.
• The livestock sector of the economy contributes 4 percent of national gross domestic product and 26 percent of agricultural gross domestic product.
• India accounts for 20 percent of the world’s livestock population.

Government measures

• Forest Rights Act 2006 has helped pastoralists obtain grazing rights across states in the country.
• Government through welfare schemes has provided assistance to pastoralists under the National Livestock Mission, Animal Husbandry Infrastructure Development Fund and the Rashtriya Gokul Mission on sustainable dairy production.
• India has launched several programmes to combat land degradation including the National Afforestation Programme, Green India Mission, and Watershed Development Component.
• Suggestion
• Integrated climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies with sustainable rangeland management plans are needed to increase carbon sequestration and storage while boosting the resilience of pastoralist and rangeland communities.
• Avoid rangeland conversion that diminish the diversity and multifunctionality of rangelands, especially on indigenous and communal lands.
• Adopt and support pastoralism-based strategies that help mitigate harms to rangeland health, such as climate change, overgrazing, soil erosion, invasive species, drought, and wildfires.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: The 26th meeting of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA-26) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has concluded recently.

About

• The SBSTTA, is a multidisciplinary body open to all Contracting parties, which provides scientific and technical assessments of the status of biodiversity.
• It recommended fully implement The Biodiversity Plan adopted at Montreal in 2022.
• They would be deliberated upon further at the 16th meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP16).
  • The conference will be held in the Colombian city of Cali from October 21-November 1, 2024.

Issues Discussed at the Meeting

• Scientific and technical needs to support the implementation of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.
• Detection and identification of living modified organisms.
• Risk assessment and risk management.
• Synthetic biology.
• Marine and coastal biodiversity: Ecologically or biologically significant marine areas and Conservation & sustainable use of marine and coastal biodiversity.
• Biodiversity and health.
• Monitoring framework for the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.
• The meeting set the stage for a potential agreement on how the world defines — and consequently protects — ecologically or biologically significant marine areas (EBSA).

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

• CBD is the international legal instrument for “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources”.
• It was signed by 150 government leaders at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, it has been ratified by 196 nations.
• Its overall objective is to encourage actions, which will lead to a sustainable future.
• It has two supplementary agreements, the Cartagena Protocol and Nagoya Protocol.
  • Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by genetically modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology.
  • Nagoya Protocol aims for the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
• The CBD’s governing body is the Conference of the Parties (COP).
• All parties that have ratified the treaty meets every two years to review progress, set priorities and commit to work plans.
• The Secretariat of the CBD is based in Montreal, Canada.