General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Gulf region has become an increasingly important strategic partner of India and an integral part of its ‘extended neighbourhood’ as per the Italian Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI).

Gulf Region

• The Gulf Region typically refers to the countries surrounding the Persian Gulf in the Middle East.
• It includes nations like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
• This region is known for its vast oil reserves, which have significantly influenced global economics and politics.

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

• It is a political and economic alliance of six Middle Eastern countries—Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman.
• It was established in 1981.
• It aims to achieve unity among its members based on their common objectives and their similar political and cultural identities, which are rooted in Arab and Islamic cultures.
• Presidency of the council rotates annually.

Importance of Gulf Region for India

• Energy Security: The Gulf countries are major suppliers of crude oil and natural gas to India.
  • India is highly dependent on Gulf oil for its energy needs, making the region crucial for India’s energy security.
• Remittance: Remittances from Indian expatriates working in the Gulf contribute significantly to India’s economy.
  • Remittance is the non-commercial transfer of money by an individual to his/her home country or family.
• Security Cooperation: The Gulf region is strategically important for India’s security interests, given its location and influence in the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean regions.

India’s Relations with GCC

• Strategic Partnership: GCC is a major trade and investment partner for India. While India has close economic and political ties with all countries, the strategic partnership exists with only Saudi Arabia, UAE, and Oman.
• Energy Security: GCC contributes to 35% of India’s oil imports and 70% of gas imports. India is executing the second phase of its Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR). Several GCC countries have expressed their interest in the same.
• Trade and Investment: GCC countries contribute to about one-sixth of India’s total trade.
  • The GCC is India’s largest regional bloc trading partner. Trade with the GCC comprised 15.8 percent of India’s total trade in FY2022-23, compared to 11.6 percent of total trade with the European Union.
  • India also has a significant trade deficit with the GCC which is driven by India’s dependence on GCC countries for oil and gas imports.
• Defence Relations: India’s defense engagements with these countries are gaining significant momentum.
  • From mere training of security personnel in various military institutes, they have extended ties to other areas, including intelligence sharing, counterterrorism, artificial intelligence, electronic warfare, and cybersecurity.

Conclusion

• India will likely become an increased ‘strategic partner’ for the Gulf states.

Managing mutual challenges, while focusing on growing political, economic and security interests, will be the key to enabling India-Gulf relations to strengthen and become more ambitious.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Heatwaves are prolonged periods of excessively hot weather that can cause adverse impacts on human health, the environment, and the economy.

• India, being a tropical country, is particularly vulnerable to heatwaves, which have become more frequent and intense in recent years.

Criteria for Declaring Heat Wave in India:

• Plains and Hilly Regions:
  • Heat wave is considered if the maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40°C or more for Plains and at least 30°C or more for Hilly regions.
  • Based on Departure from Normal Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 50°C to 6.40°C.
  • Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.40°C.
  • Based on Actual Maximum Temperature Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥45°C.
  • Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥47°C.
  • If the above criteria are met in at least 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days, it is declared so on the second day.
• Coastal Areas:
  • When the maximum temperature departure is 50°C or more from normal, a heat wave may be described provided the actual maximum temperature is 37°C or more.

Heat Action Plans (HAPs):

• It lists preparatory, adaptive, and responsive measures for government departments to tackle the heat and its impacts.
• They are mandated to be drafted — not in an ad hoc manner — at the city, district, and state levels for effective implementation and as per the guidelines of the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA).
• It aided in reducing the casualties due to heatwaves,

 Issues with HAPs:

• It misses the varied nature of impacts on different vulnerable groups, like workers in the informal economy in cities.
  • As of now, a vast majority of the cities in India do not have HAPs.
  • Most of the existing HAPs barely mention the workers.
• With their “disaster-emergency” perspective, the HAPs leave little room for medium to long-term actions.
• They are usually biased towards rural realities, without any links to urban planning and design of cities.

Issues faced due to heat waves:

• Working in extreme heat conditions impacts productivity and income for informal workers in indoor and outdoor activities.
• Domestic workers are confronted with constant exposure to hot stoves and excessive heat.
• Home-based workers continue to work and live in a “pressure cooker” environment in small and congested houses in urban slums.
• Construction workers encounter the relentless challenges of working in the blazing sun
• compounded by unbearably hot makeshift shelters near the worksite.
• Street vendors face income loss as the perishable goods they sell spoil rapidly, combined with a decline in customer traffic and additional expenses on water and shade.
• Women workers, constituting a substantial number of informal workers, find an increase in their care activity
• because of food spoilage, which leads to frequent cooking and cleaning, as well as taking care of the young, sick, and vulnerable in the family.
• Heat-related illnesses — greater fatigue, dehydration, increased anxiety and higher chances of heat stroke.
• The lack of “basic infrastructure”, such as drinking water and a sunshade at working sites, worsens the risk of these ailments.
• Most informal workers are not protected under any health insurance and incur out-of-pocket expenses for medical treatment
• which adds to their already shrinking income during the hot months.

Policy measures to mitigate the impact of heat waves on workers:

• It is essential to reimagine heat waves as not conventional disaster events, but as prolonged disasters
  • Moving from ad hoc, instruction-based response to linking HAPs with other long-term measures of urban planning and climate action plans (CAPs).
  • This should then translate into the NDMA working with other stakeholders in urban areas, like the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) and the Ministry of Labour and Employment (MoLE).
• There must be mandatory inclusion of wide categories of informal workers in urban areas and clearer guidelines at the national level
  • It will help states broaden them and innovate as per their contexts.
• The general divisions of indoor-outdoor work and the nature of impacts need to be investigated further to frame holistic guidelines and interventions as, in many cases, indoor workers also face extreme heat.
• There is a clear need for the inclusion of worker communities and voices in the preparation of action plans.
• Representations from worker welfare boards and bodies similar to the Town Vending Committees (TVC) for street vendors need to be roped in for the drafting and execution of HAPs in cities.
• The impact of heat is not gender-neutral and has a harsher bearing on women workers’ lives — heat stress plans need to factor in these realities.
• Recognise that heat waves mean losses — of income, health, and livelihoods — and welfare measures must compensate for these.
• Workers need system-wide protections, with state interventions and employers’ contributions, which include climate-resilient social protection systems and income protection, including compensation for loss of income.

Way Forward

• As the reforms in labour laws and the Labour Codes await implementation.
  • It will be critical to rethink many of them from the perspective of informal workers and the impact of climate change on work.
• Our urban imagination needs to be reconfigured, not only to ensure water, shade, and rest–eat–leisure spaces to mitigate heat wave impacts, but also to find more ways of advancing workers’ rights in cities.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Technology has always played an important role in education but its current use is more prevalent than ever thanks to the increased availability of smart devices and web-based curriculum.

About

• A new dimension has been added with advances in the field of Artificial Intelligence. The National Education Policy of 2020 (NEP 2020) recognized the immense potential of AI and recommended its integration into the education system.
• To increase technology integration in schools, the CBSE in October last year introduced Artificial Intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things (IoT) in the school curriculum from classes VI to X.
• AI has the potential to transform education by making it more efficient, effective, and accessible to students worldwide. However, experts say it is crucial to ensure that the use of AI in education is ethical and responsible, and that it complements the work of human teachers rather than replacing them.

Role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Education

• Personalized learning: AI can help educators to create personalized learning experiences for students based on their individual needs, abilities, and learning styles. AI can analyze student data and provide recommendations on the type of content, resources, and activities that are best suited for each student.
• Adaptive learning: AI can provide adaptive learning experiences that can adjust the pace and level of difficulty of learning materials based on the student’s performance. This ensures that students learn at a pace that is appropriate for their individual needs.
• Automated grading: AI can grade assignments, essays, and exams automatically, freeing up teachers’ time to focus on other aspects of teaching. This can also help to reduce grading bias.
• Intelligent tutoring: AI-powered tutoring systems can provide students with personalized support and feedback, helping them to understand difficult concepts and improve their performance.
• Data analysis: AI can analyze large amounts of educational data to identify trends, patterns, and insights that can help educators to improve teaching practices and student outcomes.
• Accessibility: AI-powered tools can help to make education more accessible to students with disabilities. For example, text-to-speech technology can help students with visual impairments to access learning materials.

New Education Policy (NEP) 2020 and Artificial Intelligence (AI)

NEP recognizes the importance of technology, including AI, in education. Here are some of the key points related to AI in the NEP 2020:

• Integration of technology: The NEP 2020 suggests that technology can help to improve the quality of education, enhance access to education, and provide personalized learning experiences.
• AI in curriculum: The NEP 2020 proposes to introduce AI and coding in the school curriculum from class 6 onwards. This is intended to equip students with the necessary skills to participate in the digital economy and prepare them for the jobs of the future.
• AI in teacher training: This is intended to help teachers to use technology effectively in their teaching practices and to keep up with the latest developments in technology.
• AI-powered assessment: The NEP 2020 suggests that AI-powered assessment systems can be used to improve the accuracy and speed of assessment, reduce subjectivity and bias, and provide students with immediate feedback.
• National Educational Technology Forum (NETF): It will serve as a platform for the exchange of ideas, experiences, and best practices related to the use of technology in education. It will also facilitate the development of technology-based solutions for education and provide support for the effective implementation of technology in education.

Issues/Challenges of using AI in Education

While there are many potential benefits of using AI in education, there are also several issues and challenges that need to be addressed such as –

• Lack of trust and transparency: There is a lack of trust and transparency around the use of AI in education, especially when it comes to issues like data privacy and bias in algorithms.
• Limited access to technology: Many students and schools may not have access to the necessary technology to effectively use AI in education which can create a digital divide.
• Complexity of implementation: Implementing AI in education can be complex and requires significant resources, including technical expertise and financial investments. Many schools and educators may not have the resources or expertise to effectively implement and manage AI systems.
• Need for teacher training: Educators need to be trained in how to effectively use AI in their teaching practices. This includes understanding how to interpret data and insights generated by AI systems, as well as how to integrate technology into their teaching practices in a way that enhances student learning.
• Ethical concerns: There are ethical concerns around the use of AI in education, including issues around data privacy, algorithmic bias, and the potential for AI to replace human teachers. It is important to ensure that AI is used in a way that is ethical and aligned with educational values and goals.
• Impact on human interaction: AI has the potential to replace some aspects of human interaction in education, such as grading assignments and providing feedback. While this can save time for educators, it may also reduce the quality of interaction and feedback that students receive.

Way Ahead

• Comprehensive Policy Framework: Develop a comprehensive national policy framework for AI in education, outlining clear guidelines, standards, and ethical considerations. This framework should address issues like data privacy, algorithmic bias, transparency, and accountability.
• Investment in Infrastructure and Research: Allocate substantial resources to develop AI infrastructure, including high-speed internet connectivity, devices, and software for all schools and colleges. Invest in research to understand the impact of AI on learning outcomes and identify best practices for its implementation.
• Capacity Building and Teacher Training: Provide extensive training and professional development programs for teachers to equip them with the necessary skills to effectively integrate AI tools into their teaching practices.
• Continuous Evaluation and Improvement: Establish a robust mechanism for continuous evaluation of AI-powered educational tools and their impact on student learning. Use data-driven insights to identify areas for improvement and adapt AI solutions to meet the evolving needs of the education system.

Conclusion

• The use of Artificial Intelligence in education is indeed a revolutionary step and it has immense potential to reform the education system if used properly in efficient and ethical manners.

General Studies Paper-1

Context: The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) has released the snow update Hindu Kush Himalaya between 2003 to 2024.

Snow Persistence

• Snow persistence is the fraction of time snow is on the ground. When this snow melts, it provides water to people and ecosystems.
• In the river basins of the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH), snowmelt is the biggest source of water in the streams.
• Overall, it contributes 23% of the runoff to the region’s 12 major river basins every year.

Hindu Kush Himalaya

• The HKH mountains extend around 3,500 km over eight countries — Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, Myanmar, and Pakistan.
  • These mountains are also called the “water towers of Asia” because they are the origins of 10 crucial river systems on the continent — Amu Darya, Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Salween, Mekong, Yangtse, Yellow river, and Tarim.
  • These river basins provide water to almost one-fourth of the world’s population and are a significant freshwater source for 240 million people in the HKH region.

Status of Snow Persistence

• Ganga River Basin: The Ganga river basin noted its lowest snow persistence in 22 years, 17% below the long-term historical average (also known as ‘normal’).
• Brahmaputra Basin: Snow persistence in the Brahmaputra basin was 14.6% below normal in 2024.
• In the Indus river basin, snow persistence fell 23.3% below normal this year although this was offset by excesses in parts of the lower altitudes.
• Outside India, the basin of the Amu Darya river — which flows through Central Asia — recorded its lowest snow persistence in 2024: 28.2% below normal.
  • The Helmand river, an important source of drinking water for Iran and Afghanistan, was almost 32% below normal in 2024.
  • Persistence in the part where the Mekong river originates in the Himalaya was only slightly below normal this time. (This river’s delta is Vietnam’s “rice bowl”.)
• The persistence of snow in China’s Yellow River basin exceeded the normal value by 20.2% in 2024.
  • In the Yellow river basin, the East Asian winter monsoon brings cold, dry air from Siberia and Mongolia.
  • When this cold air mass interacts with moist air from other regions, particularly the Pacific Ocean, it can result in snowfall over the higher altitudes of the upper Yellow River basin.

Reasons for the Lower Persistence

• The primary reason for the lower persistence in 2024 was weak western disturbances.
• Western disturbances are low-pressure systems that originate over the Mediterranean Sea, the Caspian, and the Black Seas and bring rain and snow to the HKH region in winter.
• The region where these storms originate experienced persistently high sea-surface temperatures.
• This disruption weakened and delayed the arrival of the western disturbance, resulting in reduced winter precipitation and snowfall in the HKH region.
• Due to changing climate and global warming, this pattern is becoming increasingly unstable.

Way Ahead

• In the long term reforestation with native tree species can help the ground retain more snow.
• Better weather forecasting and early warning systems can also help local communities prepare for impending water stress.
• Improving water infrastructure and developing policies for protecting areas receiving snowfall are important for long-term change.
• Communities’ involvement in local, national level decision-making and promoting regional cooperation are vital for comprehensive solutions for the sustainability of snow.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: As per the State of Global Air Report 2024, Air pollution has caused 8.1 million deaths around the world in 2021.

Key Highlights of the Report

• More than 90 percent of these global air pollution deaths – 7.8 million people – are attributed to PM2.5 air pollution, including from ambient PM2.5 and household air pollution.
• China and India account for more than half of the global burden at 2.3 and 2.1 million deaths respectively.
• Air pollution was the second leading risk factor for death among children under 5 in 2021, after malnutrition.
• The report states that 489,000 deaths globally were attributable to ozone exposure in 2021.
• 99% of the world’s population lives in places with unhealthy levels of PM2.5 pollution.
• Air pollution is considered to be one of the biggest killers globally, second only to high blood pressure.

Scenario in India

• India and China account for 55% of the global burden deaths due to air pollution.
• Indians are also exposed to high levels of ozone. Short-term exposure to ozone has been linked to exacerbation of asthma and other respiratory symptoms while long term exposure is linked to Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease — a condition where the lungs remain inflamed obstructing the airflow.

Air Pollution

• When harmful substances (pollutants) – particles, gases, or matter – are released into the air and reduce its quality, the air is polluted.
• Common air pollutants include: Particulate Matter (PM), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Ozone (O3), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), Lead etc.
• Source: These pollutants can originate from natural sources such as volcanic eruptions and wildfires, but human activities such as industrial production, transportation, agriculture, and residential heating are significant contributors to air pollution.
• Concerns:
  • Health Related: Respiratory issues, cardiovascular problems, reduced lung function.
  • Environmental: Ecosystem damage, Biodiversity loss, Water pollution, climate change, crop damage.
  • Healthcare Costs: The health impacts of air pollution result in increased healthcare costs, including expenses related to the treatment of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.

Steps Taken by Government of India to combat Air Pollution

• National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Launched in 2019, NCAP is a comprehensive initiative with the goal of reducing air pollution in identified cities and regions across India.
  • The program focuses on improving air quality monitoring, implementing stricter emission standards, and promoting public awareness.
• Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) Emission Standards: The government implemented BS-VI emission standards for vehicles nationwide in 2020.
  • These standards aim to reduce vehicular emissions by mandating the use of cleaner fuel and more advanced emission control technologies.
• Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY): The PMUY scheme aims to provide clean cooking fuel to households by promoting the use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as an alternative to traditional biomass-based cooking methods.
• FAME (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles) Scheme: The FAME scheme promotes the adoption of electric and hybrid vehicles to reduce air pollution caused by vehicular emissions.
  • Incentives are provided to both manufacturers and consumers to encourage the use of electric vehicles.
• Green Initiatives for Sustainable Habitat (GRIHA): GRIHA is an initiative to promote sustainable and environmentally friendly practices in the construction and operation of buildings.
  • It encourages the use of energy-efficient technologies and materials to reduce pollution.
• Waste Management Programs: Proper waste management is crucial to prevent the burning of waste, which contributes to air pollution.
  • Various waste management initiatives, including the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, aim to address solid waste issues and promote cleaner disposal methods.
• Commission for Air Quality Management: The Commission has been set up for Air Quality Management in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas for better coordination, research, identification, and resolution of problems surrounding the air quality index.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: In recent years, disputes between the Union government and the States have become more frequent.

Federalism in India

• Meaning:
  • Federalism refers to a vertical division of power in a political system. It is a system in which power is divided between a central authority and other constituents.
  • For e.g. in India, political power is divided between the Central government, state governments and the institutions of local governance.
• Features of a federal system:
  • Multiple levels of government: Federalism, by its very definition, requires multiple levels of government functioning within their defined territory.
  • Division of Power: The power is divided by the division of subjects between the entities so that the chances of conflict are reduced to a minimum.
  • Written Constitution: It ensures there is clarity in the respective division of power. Again, a rigid constitution ensures that this division of power is not easily disturbed.
  • Independent Judiciary: It acts as a dispute resolution mechanism between the different levels of government.
• Interdependence of state and Central Government:
  • India consciously adopted a version of federalism that made the Union government and State governments interdependent on each other (latter more vis-a-vis the former).
  • Thereby violating the primal characteristic of a federal constitution i.e., autonomous spheres of authority for Union and State governments.
• ‘Holding together’ Federalism:
  • India’s centralised federal structure was not marked by the process of ‘coming together’ but was an outcome of ‘holding together’ and ‘putting together’.
• Indestructible & Flexibility:
  • R. Ambedkar called India’s federation a Union as it was indestructible which is why the Constitution does not contain words related to federalism.
  • He also said that India’s Constitution holds requisite flexibility to be federal and unitary on a need basis.

Types of Federalism

• Cooperative Federalism:
  • It refers to the horizontal relationship between the entities in a federal structure.
  • Cooperative federalism refers to the cooperation between the two entities in pursuit of unified socio-economic development of the country.
• Competitive Federalism:
  • It refers to promoting healthy competition between the states to keep them motivated in pursuit of economic development.
  • The laggard states are expected to put in extra efforts to catch-up with the front-runners, while the front-runners are expected to work hard to retain their ranking in the indices.
• Fiscal Federalism:
  • It deals with the division of financial powers as well as the functions between multiple levels of the federal government.
  • It has within its ambit the imposition of taxes as well as the division of different taxes between the Centre and the constituent units.
  • Similarly, in the case of joint collection of taxes, an objective criterion is determined for the fair division of funds between the entities.
  • Usually, there is a constitutional authority (like Finance Commission in India) for the purpose to ensure fairness in the division.

About the increasing federal frictions

• Dependence over public expenditure:
  • Continuing economic reforms since 1991 has led to the relaxation of many controls on investments, giving some room to States.
  • But the autonomy regarding public expenditure policies is not absolute as State governments depend on the Centre for their revenue receipts.
  • This equation between the Centre and the States has given way to friction between them in recent days, leaving little room to negotiate.
• Others: Apart from issues around resource sharing, there are other areas that have emerged as sites of conflict. These include:
  • The homogenisation of social sector policies,
  • Functioning of regulatory institutions and
  • The powers of central agencies.
• Increasing influence of centre:
  • Ideally bulk of the policies in these spheres should be at the discretion of States, with an apex central body overseeing the process of resource allocation.
  • However, the apex bodies have often attempted to increase their influence and push States in directions that are amenable to the Centre.

Economic consequences of the federal frictions

• Dilemma of investments:
  • The spread of the Centre’s span of activities leads to a situation where the Centre starts crowding out the States in terms of investments.
  • Consider a case of infrastructure development in recent years.
    • The Centre launched the PM Gati Shakti, a digital platform, to incorporate schemes of various Ministries and State governments to achieve integrated planning and coordinated implementation of infrastructure connectivity projects.
    • All States and UTs had to prepare and operationalise a State master plan in line with the national master plan for seamless implementation.
  • However, the flexibility of States in formulating their master plan is curtailed by the centralisation of planning and implementation of the national master plan.
    • This leads to underinvestment by States.
• Concentrated spending:
  • The centre’s spending has become more concentrated within the three largest States of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat, accounting for nearly half of the expenditure by 16 States between 2021-22 and 2023-24.
  • Data for 25 States shows that a total of ₹49 lakh crore was budgeted for by these States but they spent only ₹5.71 lakh crore which is 76.2% of the total.
    • Investment by these States is important in terms of their impact on regional economies as they induce more local level linkages while national infrastructure projects forge more linkages with the global economy.
• Little competition:
  • In a scenario of friction with the Centre, State governments will engage in competition with other States and with the Centre. Welfare provisioning is one such area.
  • The Centre with enhanced fiscal space has more spending power, while States’ revenues, especially non-tax revenues, remain flat as possibilities of raising non-taxes are confined to a smaller sphere due to the direct provisioning of many utilities and services by the Centre.
• Inefficiencies associated with ‘parallel policies’:
  • Federal abrasions lead to either the Centre or the States duplicating the other’s policies.
  • The emergence of parallel schemes is mainly due to the trust deficit prevailing in the federal system, the fiscal costs of which have long run consequences on the economy.

Way ahead

• For securing the implementation of many of its laws and policies, the Centre depends on the States, particularly in the concurrent spheres.
• The States also entrust their executive functions, with the consent of the Centre, to the government or agencies of the Centre (Article 258A).
• Such interdependence is inevitable, especially in a large, diverse, developing society and needs to be preserved.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The recent UN report by the Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) underscores a critical juncture for global efforts to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030.

The findings paint a bleak picture, with none of the 17 goals on track, highlighting the need for urgent and comprehensive reforms.

Importance of SDGs

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 global goals established by the United Nations in 2015. These goals are a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity by 2030. They help in:

• Poverty Eradication: SDGs aim to eradicate poverty in all its forms and dimensions, ensuring that everyone has access to basic necessities like food, water, shelter, and healthcare.
• Environmental Protection: SDGs address the pressing environmental challenges facing our planet, including climate change, biodiversity loss, and pollution. They emphasize the need for sustainable practices to conserve natural resources and mitigate environmental degradation.
• Social Inclusion: SDGs promote social inclusion and equality by addressing issues such as gender inequality, discrimination, and social exclusion. They strive to ensure that all people, regardless of their background, have equal opportunities and access to resources.
• Economic Growth: SDGs recognize the importance of sustainable economic growth that is inclusive and equitable. They aim to create decent jobs, promote innovation, and build resilient economies that benefit everyone.
• Global Partnership: SDGs call for global cooperation and partnership to achieve these goals. They emphasize the importance of collaboration between governments, businesses, civil society, and individuals to create a sustainable future for all.
• Improved Health and Well-being: SDGs aim to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. This includes access to quality healthcare, nutrition, clean water and sanitation.
• Reduced Inequalities: SDGs aim to reduce inequalities within and among countries. This includes addressing disparities in income, wealth, opportunity, and access to resources.

Progress and Challenges

Stagnant Progress: The report reveals that only 16% of SDG targets are progressing well, while the rest show limited progress or regression. This indicates significant challenges in implementing effective policies and achieving tangible outcomes.

Key Areas of Concern: Several SDGs are particularly concerning:

• Zero Hunger (SDG 2): Rising food insecurity and hunger.
• Sustainable Cities and Communities (SDG 11): Inadequate urban planning and infrastructure.
• Life Below Water (SDG 14) and Life on Land (SDG 15): Biodiversity loss and environmental degradation.
• Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions (SDG 16): Declining press freedom and rising conflicts.

Impact of COVID-19: The pandemic has exacerbated existing challenges, particularly affecting life expectancy (SDG 3) and increasing health disparities. The disruption has also led to setbacks in poverty reduction and education.

Leading and Lagging Nations:

• Nordic Countries: Continue to lead in SDG achievement due to robust social policies and environmental commitments.
• BRICS and BRICS+ Countries: Show some progress but are still behind leading nations.
• Least Developed Countries: Facing significant setbacks, widening the gap since 2015.

Financial Architecture: There is a critical need for reforming global financial systems to provide low and middle-income countries with access to affordable, long-term capital. This is essential for investing in public goods like education (SDG 4).

India’s Performance toward achieving various SDGs

• India’s progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is mixed, with advancements in poverty reduction, renewable energy, economic growth, and gender equality. However, challenges persist in addressing hunger, education quality, clean water access, climate change, and inequality.
• While initiatives like PMAY, MGNREGA, the PDS, Ayushman Bharat, and Swachh Bharat have shown positive impacts, further efforts are needed to ensure sustainable access to clean water, improve educational quality, reduce healthcare disparities, and mitigate the effects of climate change.
• India’s commitment to the SDGs is evident in its various programs and policies, but the road ahead requires addressing infrastructure gaps, promoting technological innovation, tackling social disparities, and ensuring sustainable urban development.
• Collaboration between the government, private sector, and civil society is crucial for accelerating progress towards achieving the SDGs by 2030.

Recommendations

• Major Overhaul: The report calls for a major overhaul of the current approach, emphasizing that “business as usual” will not suffice. It proposes a UN 2.0 model to enhance global cooperation and effectiveness.
• Reforming Financial Systems: The report suggests establishing new institutions and implementing global taxation schemes to generate the necessary funds. Shifting priorities towards investments in quality education and sustainable infrastructure.
• Multilateralism Index: The introduction of a new index measuring countries’ support for UN-based multilateralism highlights the importance of global cooperation. Countries committed to multilateralism tend to perform better on SDGs.
• Food and Land Systems: The report stresses the need to tackle both undernutrition and rising obesity through sustainable agricultural practices.
• FABLE Pathways: The Future of Agriculture, Biodiversity, Land-use, and Energy pathways include:
  • Reducing overconsumption and limiting animal-based protein.
  • Investing in increasing productivity, especially in high-demand areas.
  • Creating inclusive and transparent monitoring systems to halt deforestation.

Conclusion

The UN report is a clarion call for urgent and comprehensive action to achieve the SDGs. It underscores the need for robust global cooperation, significant financial reforms, and innovative policy solutions. Addressing these challenges is crucial for ensuring a sustainable and equitable future for all. The analysis highlights the interconnectedness of global issues and the importance of collective efforts in overcoming them.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The ageing phenomenon is the most notable experience of the 21st century with remarkable improvement in human longevity complemented by the lowest levels of reproduction.

About the Ageing Population in India

• India is experiencing a significant demographic shift, with its elderly population projected to double by 2050. The current elderly population of 153 million (aged 60 and above) is expected to reach a staggering 347 million by 2050.
• According to the United Nations Population Fund’s India Ageing Report 2023, the percentage of the elderly population in India is estimated to grow from 10.5% in 2022 to 20.8% by 2050.
  • It represents a rise from 14.9 crore to an estimated 34.7 crore individuals aged 60 and above.
  • It aims to surpass the number of children (aged 0 to 15 years) by 2046, indicating a reversal in the age structure that has historically been dominated by a young populace.
• The National Commission on Population Report (2020) estimated it to be at 41%, and by 2050, and projected to make up over 20% of the total population.
• The India Ageing Report 2023 provides a comprehensive review of the living conditions and welfare of older individuals in India, leveraging data from various sources including the Longitudinal Ageing Survey in India (LASI), Census of India, and Population Projections by the Government of India.
  • According to it, the decadal growth rate of the elderly population of India is currently estimated to be at 41%, and the percentage of the elderly population in the country is projected to double to 20.8% of the total population by 2050.
  • Further, the sex ratio (females per 1,000 males) among the elderly has been climbing steadily since 1991, with the ratio in the general population stagnating.
• According to Census 2011, India has 104 million older people (60+years), constituting 8.6% of total population. Amongst the elderly (60+), females outnumber males.

Projected Elderly Population Growth

• Population Estimate: 319 million by mid-century.
• Growth Rate: Approximately 3% annually (predominantly be female with a sex ratio of 1,065 females per 1,000 males).

Demographics of the Elderly

• Gender Ratio: Predominantly female with 1,065 females per thousand males.
• Widowhood: 54% of elderly women will be widows.
• Living Alone: 6% of elderly men and 9% of elderly women live alone.
• Rural Elderly: 70% residing in rural areas.

Associated Challenges

• The above demographic shift poses challenges for policy-making, healthcare, and social security systems as they adapt to cater to an increasingly older population. It highlights the need for a robust framework for elderly care and support systems in India.
• Providing Care: HelpAge India found that the physical challenges in providing care, along with financial security to the elderly are reported by around 29% of caregivers, with female caregivers reporting more difficulties.
• Feminisation and Ruralisation: These are notable aspects that require attention, as policies must be tailored to address the unique needs of elderly women and those living in rural areas.
• Ageing and Health: Increase in longevity and decline of joint family and breakdown in social fabric pushes seniors into loneliness and neglect.
  • Poor Health Reports: A quarter of the elderly report poor health.
  • Chronic Diseases: 75% suffer from one or more chronic conditions.
  • Disabilities: 40% of those aged 45 and above have disabilities.
  • Diabetes and Cancer: High prevalence among the elderly in India.
  • Mental Ailments: 20% aged above 45 report issues, mainly depression.
  • Abuse Reports: 5% report abuse, with higher frequency in rural women.
• Nutrition Challenges: Instances of smaller meal portions, skipped meals, and hunger without eating.
• Vulnerabilities in Indian Elderly
  • Daily Living Activities: 20% face restrictions;
  • Multi-morbidity: Health issues are common.
  • Poverty: Financial struggles are widespread.
  • Income Absence: Lack of regular earnings.
• State Variations and LASI Report: The Longitudinal Ageing Survey of India highlights disparities across states. Compared with southern and western India, central and northeastern regions have the younger group of States as indicated by the ageing index.
• Limited Scheme Awareness: Government Schemes like IGNOAPS, IGNWPS, and Annapurna have limited reach.
• Welfare Provisioning: However, there are legal and concessional measures in place, but there is an awareness gap (low awareness of existing welfare laws and schemes, and awareness of legal rights and concessions)
  • Maintenance and Welfare Act: Only 12% aware of the Act of 2007.
  • Concessional Awareness: 28% know about concessions for the elderly.

Related Initiatives

• Statutory Provisions: The National Policy on Older Persons 1999, Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007 and National Policy for Senior Citizens 2011, provide the legal framework for supporting the needs of seniors.
• NITI Aayog has released the SDG India Index and Dashboard 2020–21, which tracks progress on various indicators aligned with the National Indicator Framework (NIF).
  • It aims to refine and improve outcomes and impacts for all States and UTs in India.
• Inclusive Policies, Programmes, and Schemes like National Programme for Health Care of the Elderly, the National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP), the Maintenance and Welfare of Senior Citizens Act, 2007 and the (Amendment) Bill, Atal Vayo Abhyuday Yojana’ (AVYAY), and Elderline (a national helpline), among others.
  • The National Programme for Health Care of Elderly and Health and Wellness Centres under the Ayushman Bharat programme provide dedicated healthcare to elderly at primary health care settings.
  • It was a frontrunner in addressing the concerns of the elderly through its National Policy on Older Persons (NPOP) in 1999, three years before the Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing (MIPPA).

Further Approaches

• Inclusion Principles (Essential for addressing vulnerabilities) like Social Security Measures; and Life Course Perspective;
• Preparatory Measures (Importance of planning for later life stages) like focusing beyond Financial Independence for ensuring health and productivity in extended lifespans; Evaluation of Ageing; and Individual Focus (Current evaluations prioritise personal attributes over life conditions)
• Need for Social Agency
  • Movement Creation: Essential to empower the vulnerable elderly group.
  • Institutional Innovation: Shift perception from liability to asset.
  • Transformational Focus: Youth mobility, digitalisation, and social inclusion.
• Health Care: Catering specialised health care services to the special needs of seniors and the elderly. For example, geriatric health care, long-term care facilities – particularly as children find themselves abroad with parents back in India, and medical professionals trained to address the issues of the elderly.
• Fostering Positive Intergenerational Bonding: Building specific and planned bridges can enrich society by facilitating the exchange of knowledge, skills, wisdom, experiences, and perspectives needed to drive a rapid tooling-up of the younger generation.
  • It could also address the issue of social isolation that ails many elderly.
• Investing in the silver economy: The silver economy is a rapidly growing sector that encompasses a wide range of goods and services, such as insurance, pensions and banking and investments, and travel and tourism that are specifically targeted at older people who have adequate savings and assets.
  • It opens a vast window and space for India’s start-ups and disruptors to provide accessible, cost effective and inclusive solutions catering to the specific needs of older persons.
• Strengthening the data system on ageing populations: The availability of accurate and current data enables governments and organisations to tailor services and programmes to the specific needs of older individuals by aiding in identifying trends, forecasting demands, and assessing the impact of ageing on various sectors, from health care to social services.

Conclusion

• As India prepares for this demographic transition, it is imperative to focus on creating an inclusive society that values the contributions of its elderly citizens while providing them with the support and care they deserve.
• Since the 1990s, the Indian economy has grown ten times and by 2027 it is expected to become the world’s third largest economy. A lot of that additional wealth will be generated by those who are working now and who will become senior citizens by 2050.
• It is precisely the right moment for India to not only focus on reaping the benefits of Demographic Dividend through its hefty youth population but to also embrace the concept of Silver Dividend’.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: Prime Minister Narendra Modi met his Italian counterpart with a focus on a free and open Indo-Pacific and India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor.

About

• Both the leaders reviewed the progress of the bilateral strategic partnership and agreed to strengthen cooperation in global fora and multilateral initiatives, including the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor.

India-Italy Strategic Partnership

• India and Italy elevated their Relations into Strategic Partnership in 2023.
• Italy is the next country in Europe after France, Germany and The Netherlands, to be taking a keen interest in engagements in the Indo-Pacific region and a gradual upswing in its ties with India is an important part of its recent Indo-Pacific pivot.
• In 2021, the ‘India-Italy-Japan’ trilateral was launched, with an aim to work towards the security, stability, prosperity and multilateralism of the Indo-Pacific region.
• It is the second trilateral that India has, in the Indo-Pacific region, involving a European country, after the ‘India-France-Australia’ trilateral.
• Global Forums: Italy joined both the significant initiatives, launched on the margins of the G20 Summit, the ‘Global Biofuel Alliance’ and the ‘India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor’.
  • Italy has also joined the ‘International Solar Alliance’ (ISA), in 2021, which was the year of the Italian Presidency of G20 and co-Presidency of COP26.
• Bilateral trade between India and Italy has substantially increased; it was estimated at 4.9 billion Euros in 2022, with a 42% growth over 2021.
  • Italy is the fifth largest trading partner of India in the EU.
  • Italy, which is looking at supply chain consolidation and diversification in its post-pandemic recovery, sees India as an important partner in the region.
• The two countries are looking forwards to strengthen cooperation in defence technology, maritime security and space, with similar concerns in maritime domain.
• Relations with China: At the same time, there is also Italy’s growing concern about China in the broader European and Indo-Pacific region.
  • There are reports about Italy’s intention to exit China’s BRI. In case this happens, it will be a significant policy shift for Italy.
  • Geopolitical necessities are resulting in Italian policy makers, shaping and reshaping their relationships in Asia.

Way Ahead

• Recent developments show that there is a renewed interest in the relationship from both sides.
• India and Italy can leverage their strategic positions in the Indian Ocean and in the Mediterranean, respectively, to promote connectivity, stability, energy security, freedom of navigation in the two maritime geographies, and therefore in the wider Indo-Pacific region.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: Recently, it was observed as reduced river flows and falling water tables have made the summer harsher in several parts of the country.

About the Water Crisis in India

• India’s water crisis is a complex issue that stems from multiple factors. Rapid urbanisation, industrialization, and unsustainable agricultural practices contribute to increasing water demand.
• Climate change exacerbates the situation, causing erratic rainfall patterns and affecting water sources.
  • Inefficient water management, inadequate infrastructure, and pollution also play a role, making water scarcity a pressing concern.

Status of Water Crisis in India

• High Water Stress: India has about 18% of the world’s population but only 4% of the world’s water resources (NITI Aayog Report), making it among the most water stressed in the world.
• Low per capita water availability: The average per capita water availability for 2031 has been assessed to be 1367 cubic metres. Per capita annual freshwater availability in 2021 was lower than the Falkenmark Water Stress Indicator threshold.
• Groundwater: It is vital for India’s agriculture, industry and population needs. Groundwater is a primary irrigation source, crucial for food security.
  • Around 30% of India’s freshwater is stored as groundwater, mostly in aquifers — bodies of permeable rock and sediment — below the Earth’s surface.
  • With more than 60% of irrigated agriculture and 85% of drinking water supplies dependent on it, groundwater is a vital resource.
  • In rural areas, groundwater is a primary source of drinking water through community wells and boreholes.
  • Industries depend on it, particularly where surface water is scarce.
• Uneven Distribution: Monsoon rains are crucial, and erratic rainfall patterns worsen water stress in many regions.
• Strained Access: Millions lack access to safe drinking water, relying on polluted sources or struggling to afford clean water.
• Widening gap between water demand and availability: Rapid urbanisation and industrialisation are taking a heavy toll on the overall water demand scenario.

Root Causes of the Water Crisis

• The water crisis in India is rooted in a combination of factors, including overexploitation of groundwater, inadequate rainwater harvesting, and mismanagement of water resources. Pollution of water bodies and inefficient agricultural irrigation methods further exacerbate the issue, leading to reduced water availability and quality. These include:
• Rising Demand and Overexploitation: Population growth and rapid urbanisation put immense pressure on water resources. Excessive groundwater extraction for agriculture and industry depletes aquifers faster than they can be replenished.
  • For example, Bengaluru has undergone unplanned urbanisation. In 1800, the city had 1,452 interconnected water bodies and about 80% green cover. However, this has drastically changed due to development and growth.
• Pollution and Poor Infrastructure: Industrial waste and agricultural runoff contaminate surface water sources, making them unfit for consumption. Leakages in pipes and canals waste precious water, further straining supplies.
  • According to the WHO, Iron was found in water supplied to 30% or 19,720 rural Indian households (Lok Sabha 2017). Arsenic was found in the drinking water source of 21% of such households.
  • Iron is known to cause respiratory system haemorrhage when mixed with drinking water.
• Climate Change: Unpredictable weather patterns disrupt monsoons and exacerbate water scarcity.
  • Karnataka experienced an early start to the season with a drought in Bengaluru, while Delhi faced a water emergency due to high temperatures.
• Data Gaps and Emergency Responses: Data on per capita water availability is unclear, leading to reactive measures during shortages. The government should prioritise water conservation, reuse, and recycling initiatives.
• Lack of Coordination and Ineffective Plans: There’s minimal coordination between departments handling water resources, and existing water-sharing arrangements fail during shortages. Rainwater harvesting plans are not effectively implemented.

Measures to Overcome Water Scarcity in India

• Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA): It aims to improve water availability, including groundwater conditions in water-stressed blocks across 256 districts.
• Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM): It has been working to provide every rural household with potable water through tap connections.
  • The mission addresses SDG target 6.1 which focuses on achieving universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all by 2030.
• National Water Mission (NWM): Established under the National Action Plan on Climate Change, NWM focuses on the conservation and management of water as a national resource.
• Atal Bhujal Yojna & Mission Amrit Sarovar: These schemes focus on constructing water bodies and promoting rainwater harvesting.
• Catchment Scale-Based Approach: Emphasises linking water reallocation with development and infrastructure investment for integrated water management.
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): It is a centrally sponsored scheme (core scheme) launched in 2015. The centre- state share will be on ration 75:25 (90:10 for north-eastern region and hilly states)
  • Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) that aims to provide Central Loan Assistance (CLA) to major and medium irrigation projects that were in an advanced stage of completion to achieve the targeted potential, ultimately resulting in saving water and improving efficiency.
• National Aquifer Mapping and Management Programme (NAQUIM): Under NAQUIM, groundwater aquifers have been mapped and management plans have been made for 80% of the country.
• Bureau of Water Use Efficiency (BWUE): It will be a facilitator for the promotion of improving water use efficiency across various sectors namely irrigation, drinking water supply, power generation, industries, etc., in the country.
• Local Measures: Activists and experts have been working on bottom-up schemes to revive local water bodies, demonstrating significant change at the community level.

Way Ahead

• The water crisis demands immediate and collective action. By adopting sustainable practices, promoting water conservation, and investing in infrastructure, India can mitigate the crisis and ensure a water-secure future.
• Need for Long-Term Water Policy: Government has focused on tap water connections, but aquifer health is overlooked. A comprehensive policy is needed to address water shortages and prevent conflicts.
• Agricultural Water Management Initiatives: Programs like Sahi Fasal Campaign and Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana promote efficient water use in agriculture, but broader demand-side management is necessary.