General Studies Paper -2

Context: With a large and diversified population, India faces persistent obstacles to health equity.

Health Equity

• Equity is the absence of avoidable, unfair or remediable differences among groups of people due to their social, economic, demographic or geographic circumstances.
• Health equity is the state in which everyone has a fair and just opportunity to attain their highest level of health.

Importance of Health equity

• It ensures that every person has an equal opportunity to achieve their highest health potential, no matter what their circumstances.
• It addresses the root causes of inequities such as poverty, discrimination, limited access to high-quality education, a healthy diet, clean water, fresh air, and housing, and merely grants equal access to health care.
• It is a fundamental component of social justice.
• Health and development :They are interlinked. The health of a population is a fundamental need for economic and social well-being. Thus, the developmental trajectory of a nation hinges significantly on its capacity to furnish top-tier healthcare services to its populace.
  • Doing so enhances productivity, encourages better lifestyles, and creates a more informed and mature labour force, thereby enriching the overall standard of living.

Initiatives

• “Public Health and Hospitals” being a state subject, the primary responsibility of strengthening the public healthcare system lies with the respective State Governments.
  • However, under the National Health Mission (NHM), technical and financial support is provided to the States/UTs to strengthen the public healthcare system at public healthcare facilities.
• Ayushman Bharat initiative: Ayushman Bharat was recommended by the National Health Policy 2017, to achieve the vision of Universal Health Coverage (UHC).
  • This initiative has been designed to meet Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and its underlying commitment, which is to “leave no one behind.“
• The National Health Mission (NHM), which includes both the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) and the National Urban Health Mission (NUHM), reduces the health-care gap between rural and urban India by expanding access, strengthening infrastructure, and providing essential services to vulnerable populations.

Existing Issues

• Global: The COVID-19 pandemic has revealed that infectious diseases target marginalised and vulnerable groups the most, thus widening the health equity gap.
  • Climate change poses a serious health risk since it disproportionately impacts low-income and vulnerable people.
  • The health-care provision is severely hampered by conflicts, which destroy infrastructure, uproot communities, and shut off access to vital medical services.
• Indian Scenario: India is diverse and has wide socioeconomic gaps.
  • Access to health care in rural areas is significantly less than in metropolitan areas.
    • Social and economic barriers exacerbate this disparity.
    • According to the 2011 Census, urban slums make up over 17% of India’s metropolitan areas, and exhibit serious health disparities.
    • Health risks are increased by overcrowding, poor sanitation, and restricted access to clean water.
    • Infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis, are 1.5 times more common in slums than in non-slum areas
  • Disparities across caste and gender are profound.
    • NFHS-5 (2019-21) data indicates that Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes experience higher child mortality and lower immunisation rates.
    • Additionally, 59% of women in the lowest wealth quintile suffer from anaemia, almost double the rate in the highest quintile, demonstrating the intersection of caste, gender, and economic status in health outcomes.
  • Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) account for more than 60% of all fatalities in India.
• A critical shortage of doctors exacerbates these issues, with WHO data indicating only 0.8 doctors per 1,000 people, which is below the advised ratio.
• Even though over 75% of health-care professionals work in metropolitan regions, which only account for 27% of the population, the shortage is particularly severe in rural areas.

Suggestions and Way Forward

• Even though access to health care has improved over the past 20 years, there is still much work to be done in rural India.
• India’s health equity issues require a comprehensive approach beyond improvements in health-care facilities to address more extensive socioeconomic determinants of health.
• To move India toward universal health coverage and a more equitable future, the government, civil society, health-care providers, and communities need to work together.
• Governments and officials may influence the state of health through funding, creative policies, and laws.
• Achieving health equity also requires addressing social determinants of health and health disparities.

It involves acknowledging and addressing racism as a threat to public health and the history of unethical practices in public health that lead to inequitable health outcomes.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: India has asserted that as the United Nations turns 80 next year, it is “high time” to reform the Security Council.

About the UNSC

• The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the principal organs of the United Nations, responsible for maintaining international peace and security.
• It was established in 1945 as part of the UN Charter and is composed of 15 member states, including five permanent members with veto power—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms by the General Assembly.
• It is headquartered in New York City.

Need for the Reforms in the UNSC

• Current Composition: The current composition of the Security Council has under-representation and un-representation of key regions.
• Inability to Adress Conflicts: The current composition of the council has an inability to address critical conflicts and maintain international peace and security.
• Changes in World Order: The world has undergone a sea change since 1945 and the new realities need to be reflected in the permanent membership.
• Veto Power: Currently, only the five permanent members hold veto powers and through its use have stalled action in the Council to address global challenges and conflicts such as in Ukraine and Gaza.
  • The remaining 10 nations in the Council are elected to sit as non-permanent members for two-year terms and do not have veto powers.
• Legitimacy: The disproportionate power held by the five permanent members, particularly their veto power lead to a perception of unfairness and lack of legitimacy.

Why India Should Get Permanent Membership of UNSC?

• Global Population and Representation: India is the world’s second-most populous country, representing approximately 18% of the world’s population.
  • Such demographic significance warrants proportional representation in global decision-making bodies like the UNSC.
• Economic Powerhouse: India has emerged as a major global economic force, ranking among the top economies by GDP (nominal) and GDP (PPP).
  • Its economic strength contributes significantly to global stability and development, which aligns with the UNSC’s mandate to maintain international peace and security.
• Commitment to Peacekeeping: India has been one of the largest contributors to UN peacekeeping missions, demonstrating its commitment to global peace and security.
• Strategic Importance: India occupies a pivotal geopolitical position in South Asia and the broader Indo-Pacific region.
  • Its influence extends beyond regional boundaries, making it crucial in addressing global security challenges such as terrorism, climate change, and maritime security.
• Democratic Values: As the world’s largest democracy, India upholds principles of pluralism, tolerance, and inclusivity, which are fundamental to the UN’s ethos.
• Support from Member States: India enjoys broad support from a significant number of UN member states, including influential nations from various regions.
  • This backing reflects recognition of India’s global role and its potential contributions to enhancing the UNSC’s capacity to respond to global crises.

Limitations in Introducing the Reforms in UNSC

• Veto Power of Permanent Members: Any reforms to the composition or working methods of the UNSC require the approval of the five permanent members.
  • These countries have divergent interests and are reluctant to support changes that could diminish their influence within the Council.
• Regional Dynamics: Regional rivalries and geopolitical tensions complicate efforts to reform the Council.
• Complexity of the Reform Process: Amending the UN Charter to enact reforms requires a lengthy and complex process involving ratification by a significant number of member states, making it difficult to enact substantive reforms.
• Chinese Opposition: China being a permanent member blocks the growth of India becoming a Permanent Member.

Way Ahead

• It is important that both the permanent and non-permanent membership be representative of the world as it is today, not the world as it existed in the wake of the Second World War.
• Reforms in the UNSC are essential for maintaining its relevance, legitimacy, and effectiveness in addressing the complex security challenges facing the international community in the 21st century.

However, achieving consensus on such reforms among the UN’s member states remains a challenging and ongoing process.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is known as India’s “water tower” and is critical for providing essential ecosystem services. However, there’s a dissonance between the region’s special development needs and the current development model, leading to potential economic ruin due to resource exploitation.

Importance of Himalayas

The Himalayas, a majestic mountain range spanning over 2,400 km, hold immense ecological, economic, and cultural significance for India and the wider South Asian region.

• Climate Regulation: The Himalayas act as a barrier against cold winds from Central Asia, ensuring a milder climate in the Indian subcontinent. They also influence the monsoon patterns, bringing vital rainfall for agriculture.
• Water Source: They are the source of major rivers like the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra, providing water for irrigation, hydropower, and domestic use to millions of people.
• Biodiversity Hotspot: The Himalayas are home to a diverse range of flora and fauna, including rare and endangered species like the snow leopard and red panda, contributing to global biodiversity.
• Natural Resources: The mountains are rich in minerals, forests, and medicinal plants, providing livelihoods and resources for local communities.
• Tourism and Recreation: The Himalayas attract tourists from around the world, contributing to the local economy and promoting cultural exchange. They also offer opportunities for adventure sports and spiritual retreats.
• Spiritual Significance: The Himalayas hold immense spiritual significance for Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains, with numerous pilgrimage sites and monasteries dotting the landscape.
• Disaster Mitigation: The Himalayas act as a natural barrier against extreme weather events, reducing the impact of cyclones and storms on the Indian subcontinent. However, they are also prone to earthquakes and landslides, necessitating careful development and disaster preparedness.
• Strategic Importance: The Himalayas play a crucial role in India’s national security, serving as a natural buffer against potential threats from neighboring countries.

Threats to Himalayas Region

The Himalayas, a vital ecological and socioeconomic region, face numerous threats that endanger their delicate balance and the well-being of millions who depend on them.

• Climate Change: Rising temperatures are causing rapid glacial melt, altering water availability downstream and increasing the risk of floods and droughts. Unpredictable weather patterns are impacting agriculture and livelihoods in the region.
• Natural Disasters: The Himalayas are prone to earthquakes, landslides, and flash floods, exacerbated by climate change and human activities like deforestation and infrastructure development. These disasters cause significant loss of life and property.
• Unplanned Development: The current development practices, such as the proliferation of hydroelectric power stations and reckless road widening in the IHR, are in stark contrast to this ecocentric approach.
  • A post-disaster assessment by the National Disaster Management Authority of the 2023 Himachal Pradesh floods pointed out that rampant construction in violation of norms, especially on river beds and floodplains, contributed significantly to the disaster.
• Deforestation: The clearing of forests for agriculture, timber, and development projects disrupts ecosystems, increases soil erosion, and contributes to climate change.
• Overgrazing: Uncontrolled grazing by livestock degrades grasslands, leading to soil erosion and reduced water retention capacity.
• Pollution: Tourism and pilgrimage activities generate significant waste, polluting water bodies and impacting the fragile mountain ecosystem.
• Invasive Species: Introduction of non-native species threatens native biodiversity and disrupts ecological balance.
• Geopolitical Tensions: Border disputes and political instability in the region can hinder conservation efforts and sustainable development.

Role of Judiciary in Safeguarding Critical Himalayas

The Supreme Court, in various cases including State of Telangana vs. Mohd. Abdul Qasim and Ashok Kumar Raghav vs. Union of India, has underscored the importance of sustainable development, recognizing the intersectionality of human rights, the right to development, and the right to adapt to climate change. The Court has stressed that sustainable infrastructure, resilient to climate impacts, is crucial for equality and equity.

Judiciary has played a crucial role in safeguarding the fragile Himalayan ecosystem through various interventions and landmark judgments.

• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): The judiciary has consistently emphasized the importance of rigorous EIA before approving development projects in the Himalayas. It has often intervened to halt or modify projects that could cause irreversible damage to the environment.
• Sustainable Development: The courts have upheld the principle of sustainable development, emphasizing the need to balance economic growth with environmental conservation. They have stressed the importance of long-term ecological sustainability over short-term economic gains.
• Protection of Forests and Wildlife: The judiciary has issued orders to protect forests, wildlife habitats, and endangered species in the Himalayas. It has also taken action against illegal mining, deforestation, and poaching activities.
• Regulation of Tourism: The courts have intervened to regulate tourism in ecologically sensitive areas, imposing restrictions on construction and vehicular traffic to minimize environmental impact.
• Public Interest Litigation (PIL): The judiciary has actively entertained PILs filed by environmental activists and concerned citizens, providing a platform for them to raise concerns about environmental degradation in the Himalayas.
• Enforcement of Environmental Laws: The courts have played a crucial role in enforcing environmental laws and regulations, holding violators accountable and imposing penalties.
• Recognition of Rights of Nature: In some landmark judgments, the judiciary has recognized the intrinsic value of nature and the rights of rivers and ecosystems, paving the way for a more ecocentric approach to development.
• Promoting Community Participation: The courts have emphasized the importance of involving local communities in decision-making processes related to development projects in the Himalayas, ensuring their voices are heard and their concerns addressed.

Steps/ Initiatives Taken

• National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE): Launched under the National Action Plan on Climate Change, NMSHE aims to understand climate change impacts on the Himalayas and develop adaptation strategies. It focuses on areas like water security, biodiversity conservation, and livelihood enhancement.
• SECURE Himalaya Project: Funded by the Global Environment Facility and implemented by the Indian government and UNDP, this project focuses on conserving snow leopards and their habitats, promoting sustainable livelihoods, and strengthening enforcement in the high Himalayan ecosystems.
• National Green Tribunal (NGT): The NGT has been instrumental in enforcing environmental laws and regulations in the Himalayas. It has passed several landmark judgments to protect forests, rivers, and wildlife in the region.
• State-Level Initiatives: Various Himalayan states have their own conservation programs and policies, such as the Sikkim Biodiversity Conservation and Forest Management Project and the Uttarakhand Action Plan on Climate Change.

Way Ahead

• Integrated Approach: A holistic approach integrating conservation, sustainable development, and disaster risk reduction is essential for safeguarding the Himalayas.
• Strengthening Governance: Improving governance mechanisms, enhancing enforcement of environmental laws, and promoting transparency are crucial for effective conservation.
• Climate Action: Urgent action is needed to address climate change, the most significant threat to the Himalayas. This includes reducing greenhouse gas emissions, promoting renewable energy, and adapting to the changing climate.
• Empowering Local Communities: Empowering local communities to manage their resources and participate in decision-making is key to sustainable conservation in the Himalayas.

Conclusion

• For true progress, development planning must incorporate disaster management to prevent and build resilience against natural hazards. Development and disaster resilience must go hand-in-hand, with planning, policy, and action aligned in an integrated approach involving all stakeholders, including policymakers, planners, the scientific community, and local communities.

General Studies Paper -3

Context: The issue of Indian Railway safety is once again under scrutiny following a recent incident where a freight train collided with a passenger train near Siliguri in West Bengal. This incident, along with last year’s tragic Balasore train accident, underscores the pressing need for comprehensive reforms and enhanced safety protocols to safeguard passengers and prevent such devastating accidents in the future.

Train Accidents in India

• It is an occurrence in the course of working of Railway which does or may affect the safety of the Railway, its engine, rolling stock, permanent way and works, fixed installations, passengers or servant or which affect the safety of others or which does or may cause delay to train or loss to the Railway.
• Despite advancements in technology and infrastructure, these incidents continue to impact passengers, infrastructure, and the overall economy.
• There has been an average of 44 consequential train accidents every year in the five-year period ending 2022-23 (FY23).

Types of Accidents

• Derailments: where a train goes off the tracks, are the most common. These can be caused by a variety of factors including track defects, equipment failure, human error, or even sabotage.
• Collisions: It occurs when two or more trains collide on the same track, often due to signal failures or errors in communication between railway personnel.
• Level Crossing Accidents: It involves collisions between trains and vehicles or pedestrians at rail crossings, highlighting the need for better safety mechanisms at these points.
• Accident type in Indian Railways: The accident type occurred in Indian Railways over the years following the trend: Derailment > Level crossing accidents > Collisions > Fire in trains > Miscellaneous accidents.

Impacts of Train Accidents

• Casualties and hampers functioning: The impact of train accidents extends beyond immediate casualties and injuries.
  • Each incident disrupts the smooth operation of the railway network, leading to delays, cancellations, and financial losses.
• Trust related issues: It erodes public trust in the safety of train travel, affecting passenger confidence and ridership.
• Economic cost: the cost of infrastructure damage, compensation payouts, and the investment required for safety upgrades are substantial.
  • These accidents also have broader implications for industries relying on efficient freight transport, impacting supply chains and logistics

Safety Challenges Faced by Indian Railways

• Unmanned Level Crossings: Closing unmanned level crossings remains a priority. These crossings pose a significant risk to both passengers and train crew. Focused measures to eliminate them have improved safety, but continued vigilance is essential.
• Track Maintenance: Emphasising track maintenance has led to a reduction in accidents. However, maintaining thousands of kilometres of tracks across diverse terrains remains a formidable task. Regular inspections, timely repairs, and modern technology are crucial.
• Communication and Information Management: Effective communication during emergencies is vital. The recent accident involving the GFCJ container train highlighted the need for accurate and timely information dissemination. Premature statements can create confusion and hinder investigations.
• Overstaffing and Workload: Indian Railways, like many government entities, is overstaffed. However, safety-critical roles, such as loco crew and station managers, require continuous attention. Addressing vacancies and reducing long working hours for locomotive pilots is essential.
• Near Misses and Management Failure: Investigating whether similar near misses are common in the affected section will reveal management effectiveness.
  • AI-enabled applications can enhance safety post mortems and provide actionable alerts by analysing digital data.

Safety Improvements

• Digital Data Management and AI: Extensive digital data from station data loggers and microprocessors on locomotives and trains can be effectively managed by AI, filtering out irregularities.
  • Implementing AI-driven predictive maintenance can help prevent accidents.
• Track Maintenance: Focused measures like closing unmanned level crossings have improved safety. Regular track maintenance remains essential to prevent derailments and accidents.
• Traffic Demands vs. Safety: Balancing increasing traffic demands with safety requirements is a challenge. Ensuring timely maintenance without compromising safety is vital.
• Reducing Accidents: Urgent steps are needed to fill vacancies and reduce long working hours for locomotive pilots.
  • Analysing accident patterns and implementing targeted safety measures can help.

Steps Taken To Minimise Rail Accidents

• Safety System Implementation: The adoption of Kavach, an indigenous collision prevention system, has faced challenges in terms of efficacy and speed of implementation.
  • While Kavach matures, considering installing ETCS Level II in important sections could be a pragmatic approach.
  • Priority Areas for Kavach: The CRS report from the Vizianagaram train accident emphasised implementing Kavach in Automatic Signalling territories prone to collisions.
  • Prioritising trunk routes and Automatic Signalling territories for Kavach installation (at a rate of 4,000 to 5,000 km/year) is achievable.
• Mission Zero Accident: In the Railway Budget 2016-17, Mission Zero Accident was one of the Missions announced, comprising of the two sub-missions:
  • Elimination of unmanned level crossings over broad gauge in the next 3-4 Currently, all unmanned level crossings on Broad Gauge have already been eliminated in 2019.
  • Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS): To prevent collisions and signal passing at danger by the Loco Pilot through developing an indigenous technology and also to increase throughput by increasing average sectional speed on Indian Railways (IR). It has been installed on Lingampalli – Vikarabad – Wadi and Vikarabad – Bidar sections (250 Route km) on South Central Railway. Further, the system is under implementation on 1199 Route Km on South Central Railway.
• Rashtriya Rail Sanraksha Kosh Fund: The fund has been created in 2017-18 with a corpus of 1 lakh crore, as a non-lapsable fund, over a period of five years for critical safety related works.
• Refresher Course to Officers: Over 300,000 non-gazetted officers across the country have been trained through a refresher course to address lapses by railway staff through skills enhancement.
• Safety category staff is also given training in Disaster Management with emphasis on Relief, Rescue and Rehabilitation (3‘R’s), Threat Perception and Emergency Response, Fighting and use of fire Extinguishers and First Aid.
• Fog PASS Device, a Global Positioning System (GPS) based hand held portable device, is used. It serves as an aid for the crew during foggy weather through audio visual alarm, whenever any landmark comes within the geo-fence range.
• Recommendations of the CAG Report: Development of a strong monitoring mechanism to ensure timely implementation of maintenance activities by adopting fully mechanised methods of track maintenance and improved technologies.
  • Railway administration must follow the guiding principles for deployment of RRSK funds.
  • Indian Railway may prepare the Detailed Outcome Framework for each item of safety work.

Suggestions and Way Forward

• Continued investment in upgrading tracks, signalling systems, and rolling stock is crucial.
  • Modernising ageing infrastructure can significantly reduce the risk of accidents.
• Strengthening safety protocols through better training of railway staff, stricter adherence to operating procedures, and leveraging technology for real-time monitoring and response.
• Increasing public awareness about railway safety, including rules at level crossings and onboard safety measures, can prevent accidents involving pedestrians and vehicles.
• Improved coordination between different stakeholders—government agencies, railway authorities, and the public—ensures accountability and timely response to safety issues
• Encouraging research into innovative safety technologies and practices tailored to Indian conditions can lead to breakthroughs in accident prevention.
• As India continues to develop the demand for safe and reliable rail transport ,It is imperative that safety measures evolve to protect passengers and ensure the continued viability of the railway system.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The recent visit of the Prime Minister of India to the United States led to a significant development in the field of military aerospace technology. The US administration offered to restart the decade-old plan to transfer jet engine technology to India. This move aims to strengthen bilateral defense ties and enhance India’s military capabilities.

Overview of India and US Bilateral Relations

• Since India’s independence, ties with the United States have weathered the Cold War era distrust and estrangement over India’s nuclear program.
• Relations have warmed in recent years and cooperation has strengthened across a range of economic and political areas.
• Bilateral Trade: The bilateral trade between the two countries has risen by 72 percent between 2017-18 and 2022-23.
  • The US accounted for 18% of the gross FDI inflows into India during 2021-22, ranking second behind Singapore.
• Defence and Security: India and the US have signed a troika of “foundational pacts” for deep military cooperation, beginning with the Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA) in 2016, followed by the Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA) after the first 2+2 dialogue in 2018, and then the Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA) in 2020.
  • In 2016, the United States elevated India to a major defence partner.
• Space: Artemis Accords signed by India established a common vision for the future of space exploration for the benefit of all humankind.
• Multilateral Cooperation: India and the United States cooperate closely in multilateral organisations and forums, including the United Nations, G20, International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and World Trade Organization.
  • Together with Australia and Japan, the United States and India convene as the Quad, a diplomatic network, to promote a free and open Indo-Pacific.
• Post-Pokhran Turnaround: Former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s famous Asia Society speech in New York in 1998, hailed India and the US as ‘natural allies in the quest for a better future’ in the 21st century.
• Nuclear Cooperation: Civil Nuclear Deal was signed in 2005, under the agreement, India agreed to separate its civil and military nuclear facilities and place all its civil resources under International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards.
  • In exchange, the United States agrees to work toward full civil nuclear cooperation with India.
• Strategic Trust: Over the past decade, strategic trust has grown, with foundational agreements, military exercises, and coordination on maritime operations. Shared concerns over China’s aggression have brought Delhi and Washington increasingly on the ‘same page’ internationally.
• New initiatives: Several new initiatives have been announced like GE-HAL deal to manufacture jet engines in India and the initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET), to bring revolution between the relations of the two nations.

Divergence in Relations

• Conflicting positions: India’s muted criticism of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 expectedly led to some frustration in the West, raising questions over India’s credibility as a security partner.
• Limited Utility: India’s utility to the US in an Indo-Pacific conflict, such as a Chinese invasion or naval blockade of Taiwan, is likely limited.
  • In the event of US military involvement in Taiwan’s defence, India would likely avoid entanglement in such a US-China conflict.
  • The US seeks greater alignment from its allies against Russia. While countries like South Korea and Australia have sent military aid to Ukraine, India is viewed by the US and the West as opportunistically buying more oil from Russia amid the war.
• Defence Relations with Russia: The US is concerned about India’s acquisition of arms like the S-400 air defence system, as it strengthens Russian power, hinders interoperability and secure communications between US and Indian forces, and prevents sharing of sensitive weapons technologies.

Concerns for India

• Strategic Trust and China: India and the U.S. have made significant strides in strategic cooperation, particularly in countering China’s aggression in the Indo-Pacific. However, concerns persist about India’s reliance on Russian military imports and its perceived reluctance to unequivocally condemn Russia’s actions in Ukraine.
  • Balancing these interests remains a challenge.
• Dependency on China: US aid in the Russia-Ukraine war strengthens Ukraine’s defence and counter offensives, forcing Russia to rely more on China for support.
  • It diminishes Russian autonomy and potentially its ability to honour defence agreements with India in an India-China conflict.
• Democratic Values and Friction: While the partnership is anchored in shared democratic values, there are areas of friction. The U.S. expresses concerns about India’s treatment of minorities, especially Muslims, and its illiberal policies. The revocation of Jammu and Kashmir’s special status, the Citizenship Amendment Act, and religious freedom issues have raised eyebrows.
• Trade and Structural Agreements: Despite steady growth in trade, disagreements over critical issues and the lack of structural trade agreements have hindered realising the full potential of the relationship.
  • Addressing trade challenges and enhancing economic ties is crucial.
• Securing Interests and Promoting Values: The U.S. and India must balance securing their interests with promoting democratic values. India’s trajectory as a secular and tolerant nation is closely watched, especially given recent developments.

Conclusion and Way Forward

• Multilateral Cooperation: While bilateral engagement thrives, multilateral cooperation on global conflicts remains a challenge.
• Complexities and Priorities: The future path of U.S.-India relations depend on navigating complexities, fostering trust, and prioritising mutual interests for a stable and prosperous partnership.
• India-U.S. relationship is at a crucial juncture, with significant potential for growth but also substantial challenges to overcome. As leaders engage once again, they must chart a course that balances ambition with pragmatism, ensuring a robust and enduring partnership.
• The strategic convergence of India and the US is because of the common threat posed by China. The more the US focuses on Russia or any other adversary and India focuses on Pakistan, the more their strategic convergence weakens.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Bangladesh Prime Minister Sheikh Haseena is on a state visit to India.

About

• The two sides signed key pacts including, increasing rail connectivity, boosting trade and having a ‘green partnership’.
• India and Bangladesh pledged to start negotiations on a comprehensive economic partnership agreement (CEPA); decided to launch a medical e-visa facility for Bangladesh citizens; agreed to send a technical team to discuss Teesta river water-sharing.

Highlights of India Bangladesh Relations

• Independence and Liberation War: India played a crucial role in Bangladesh’s independence in 1971, supporting the Bengali nationalist movement against Pakistani rule.
• This historic event laid the foundation for strong bilateral ties.
• Land Boundary Agreement (LBA): In 2015, both countries resolved long-standing border issues by exchanging enclaves and simplifying their international border, which had remained unresolved since partition in 1947.
• Connectivity: Five pre-1965 rail links have been rehabilitated between India and Bangladesh.
  • There are currently three railway trains operating between the two countries – Maitri Express ; Bandhan Express ; and Mitali Express.
  • The inauguration of Akhaura-Agartala cross-border rail link is a crucial step towards enhancing connectivity of northeastern India with Bangladesh.
• Economic Relations: Bangladesh is India’s biggest trade partner in South Asia and India is the second biggest trade partner of Bangladesh in Asia.
• India is Bangladesh’s largest export destination in Asia, with approx USD 2 billion of Bangladeshi exports to India in FY 2022-23.
• In FY 2022-23, the total bilateral trade has been reported as USD 15.9 billion.
• Trade Agreements: The two countries are members of various regional trade agreements such as the Asia Pacific Trade Agreement (APTA), the SAARC Preferential Trade Agreement (SAPTA) and the Agreement on South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) which govern the tariff regimes for trade.
• Regional Cooperation: Both countries are active members of regional organizations like SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) and BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation), promoting regional integration and cooperation.
• Various Joint exercises take place between the two countries:
  • Exercise Sampriti (Army) and
  • Exercise Milan (Navy).
• In the energy sector, Bangladesh imports nearly 2,000 megawatts of electricity from India.

Challenges

• Border Issues: Although the Land Boundary Agreement in 2015 resolved many longstanding border disputes, there are still occasional issues related to border security and illegal crossings that strain relations.
• Water Sharing: Disputes over the sharing of common rivers, such as the Teesta River, remain unresolved.
• Rohingya issue: The Bangladesh government aims for the peaceful repatriation of Rohingyas to Myanmar, but it’s talks with the military junta have been unsuccessful so far.
  • Bangladesh seeks India’s cooperation to influence Myanmar, but the government, asserts that it will deport Rohingyas from its mainland.
• Trade Imbalance: While trade between India and Bangladesh has grown significantly, there remains a trade imbalance where India exports more to Bangladesh than it imports.
  • This led to economic tensions and protectionist measures.
• Security Concerns: Issues related to border security, cross-border smuggling, and occasional incidents involving extremist groups pose security challenges for both countries, requiring continued cooperation and vigilance.
• China Factor: India’s concern is the deepening relationship between Bangladesh and China, marked by the substantial Chinese investments in infrastructure in recent years.

Way Ahead

• India considers Bangladesh a critical ally in the region.
  • A 4,096-km border, the India-Bangladesh border is the longest land boundary India has with any of its neighbours.
• Over the years, India and Bangladesh have forged a multifaceted relationship, marked by a shared history, culture, and geographical proximity.
• The foreign policy alignment between the two nations promises increased collaboration in traditional and new areas, and provides an opportunity for the two countries to address unresolved conflicts.
• Both the countries are poised to take forward discussions on a FTA to enhance their economic partnership and boost investments

General Studies Paper-3 

Context: Government enhanced allocation for the Fertilizer Sector under SIGHT Programme of the National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM).

About National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM)

• The Union Cabinet has approved the National Green Hydrogen Mission in January in 2023 and the initial outlay for the Mission is 19,744 crore, including an outlay of Rs.17,490 crore for the SIGHT programme, Rs.1,466 crore for pilot projects, Rs.400 crore for R&D, and Rs. 388 crores towards other Mission components.

The Mission will result in the following likely outcomes by 2030:

• Development of green hydrogen production capacity of at least 5 MMT (Million Metric Tonne) per annum with an associated renewable energy capacity addition of about 125 GW in the country
• Over Rs. Eight lakh crores in total investments
• Creation of over Six lakh jobs
• Cumulative reduction in fossil fuel imports over Rs. One lakh crore
• Abatement of nearly 50 MMT of annual greenhouse gas emissions

Latest Developments

• Under the Mission, MNRE had issued the Scheme Guidelines for implementation of SIGHT Programme – Component II: Incentive for Procurement of Green Ammonia Production (under Mode2A) of the NGHM in January 2024.
  • Mode 2A caters to the requirements of the fertilizer sector.
  • As per the said Guidelines, the capacity available for bidding under Tranche I of Mode 2A was 5,50,000 tonnes per annum of Green Ammonia.
• This is a significant step towards demand creation of Green Hydrogen and its derivatives in the country.

Importance

• It will contribute to India’s goal to become Aatmanirbhar (self-reliant) through clean energy and serve as an inspiration for the global Clean Energy Transition.
• It will lead to significant decarbonization of the economy, reduced dependence on fossil fuel imports, and enable India to assume technology and market leadership in Green Hydrogen.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: India is among a select few countries that have not conducted the latest Census.

• The last census conducted in India was in 2011 and has been postponed indefinitely since 2021.

About

• India shares distinction of not conducting the census with conflict-ridden countries such as Ukraine, Yemen, Syria and Myanmar — impacted by civil wars, the Taliban-ruled Afghanistan, the economic crisis-affected Sri Lanka besides several sub-Saharan African countries that have also undergone turmoil.

What is the Census?

• The Census refers to a periodic and systematic collection of demographic, economic, and social data of a population within a specific region.
• It is typically conducted by governments to gather detailed information about the population’s characteristics and living conditions.
• The Census provides crucial data that governments, businesses, researchers, and policymakers use for various purposes such as planning public services, allocating funding, and making informed decisions.

Census in India

• The Census in India has been conducted regularly since 1871. The first complete Census was conducted in 1881.
  • Initially, the Census was primarily aimed at assessing revenue and taxation needs under British colonial rule.
  • Over time, its scope expanded to include demographic, social, and economic data.
• Constitutional Mandate: The Census of India is conducted under the provisions of the Census Act of 1948, which empowers the Government of India to conduct periodic population surveys.
• Frequency: The Census of India is conducted decennially, meaning it takes place every ten years.
  • The most recent Censuses were conducted in 2011.

Significance of Census

• Policy Formulation: It provides crucial inputs for planning and formulating policies related to education, healthcare, infrastructure development, and social welfare.
• Resource Allocation: It helps in equitable distribution of resources by providing data on population distribution, demographics, and socio-economic conditions.
• Demographic Trends: It aids in understanding demographic trends, urbanization patterns, migration flows, and population growth rates.
• Monitoring Development Goals: The Census data is instrumental in monitoring progress towards national and international development goals, such as Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Why There is a delay in conducting the Census in India?

• COVID-19 Pandemic: The COVID-19 pandemic significantly disrupted the scheduling and planning of various activities, including large-scale surveys like the Census.
• Preparation and Planning: Conducting a Census in a country as vast and populous as India requires meticulous planning, resource mobilization, and coordination across various government departments.
• Political and Administrative Priorities: Governments prioritize other activities or elections, leading to delays in the Census process.
• Technological and Methodological Upgradation: Periodic updates and improvements in technology and methodologies used for data collection, processing, and analysis require additional time and resources.
• Complexity of Data Collection: India’s diversity in terms of geography, languages, cultures, and socio-economic conditions poses unique challenges in conducting a comprehensive Census.

Conclusion

• Census data should validate the various estimates on mortality based on ‘excess deaths’ analyses during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• It is imperative that decadal changes in India’s demography related to urbanisation and migration of people across States are captured adequately.
• Welfare schemes such as the targeted Public Distribution System under the National Food Security Act depend on population estimates, and the government continues to rely on Census 2011, which is now outdated.
• Considering these and other imperatives for the smooth planning and implementation of administrative, welfare and statistical management for governance, the Union government must show eagerness in commencing the Census.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: The Gulf region has become an increasingly important strategic partner of India and an integral part of its ‘extended neighbourhood’ as per the Italian Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI).

Gulf Region

• The Gulf Region typically refers to the countries surrounding the Persian Gulf in the Middle East.
• It includes nations like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
• This region is known for its vast oil reserves, which have significantly influenced global economics and politics.

Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

• It is a political and economic alliance of six Middle Eastern countries—Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman.
• It was established in 1981.
• It aims to achieve unity among its members based on their common objectives and their similar political and cultural identities, which are rooted in Arab and Islamic cultures.
• Presidency of the council rotates annually.

Importance of Gulf Region for India

• Energy Security: The Gulf countries are major suppliers of crude oil and natural gas to India.
  • India is highly dependent on Gulf oil for its energy needs, making the region crucial for India’s energy security.
• Remittance: Remittances from Indian expatriates working in the Gulf contribute significantly to India’s economy.
  • Remittance is the non-commercial transfer of money by an individual to his/her home country or family.
• Security Cooperation: The Gulf region is strategically important for India’s security interests, given its location and influence in the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean regions.

India’s Relations with GCC

• Strategic Partnership: GCC is a major trade and investment partner for India. While India has close economic and political ties with all countries, the strategic partnership exists with only Saudi Arabia, UAE, and Oman.
• Energy Security: GCC contributes to 35% of India’s oil imports and 70% of gas imports. India is executing the second phase of its Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR). Several GCC countries have expressed their interest in the same.
• Trade and Investment: GCC countries contribute to about one-sixth of India’s total trade.
  • The GCC is India’s largest regional bloc trading partner. Trade with the GCC comprised 15.8 percent of India’s total trade in FY2022-23, compared to 11.6 percent of total trade with the European Union.
  • India also has a significant trade deficit with the GCC which is driven by India’s dependence on GCC countries for oil and gas imports.
• Defence Relations: India’s defense engagements with these countries are gaining significant momentum.
  • From mere training of security personnel in various military institutes, they have extended ties to other areas, including intelligence sharing, counterterrorism, artificial intelligence, electronic warfare, and cybersecurity.

Conclusion

• India will likely become an increased ‘strategic partner’ for the Gulf states.

Managing mutual challenges, while focusing on growing political, economic and security interests, will be the key to enabling India-Gulf relations to strengthen and become more ambitious.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Heatwaves are prolonged periods of excessively hot weather that can cause adverse impacts on human health, the environment, and the economy.

• India, being a tropical country, is particularly vulnerable to heatwaves, which have become more frequent and intense in recent years.

Criteria for Declaring Heat Wave in India:

• Plains and Hilly Regions:
  • Heat wave is considered if the maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40°C or more for Plains and at least 30°C or more for Hilly regions.
  • Based on Departure from Normal Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 50°C to 6.40°C.
  • Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.40°C.
  • Based on Actual Maximum Temperature Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥45°C.
  • Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥47°C.
  • If the above criteria are met in at least 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days, it is declared so on the second day.
• Coastal Areas:
  • When the maximum temperature departure is 50°C or more from normal, a heat wave may be described provided the actual maximum temperature is 37°C or more.

Heat Action Plans (HAPs):

• It lists preparatory, adaptive, and responsive measures for government departments to tackle the heat and its impacts.
• They are mandated to be drafted — not in an ad hoc manner — at the city, district, and state levels for effective implementation and as per the guidelines of the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA).
• It aided in reducing the casualties due to heatwaves,

 Issues with HAPs:

• It misses the varied nature of impacts on different vulnerable groups, like workers in the informal economy in cities.
  • As of now, a vast majority of the cities in India do not have HAPs.
  • Most of the existing HAPs barely mention the workers.
• With their “disaster-emergency” perspective, the HAPs leave little room for medium to long-term actions.
• They are usually biased towards rural realities, without any links to urban planning and design of cities.

Issues faced due to heat waves:

• Working in extreme heat conditions impacts productivity and income for informal workers in indoor and outdoor activities.
• Domestic workers are confronted with constant exposure to hot stoves and excessive heat.
• Home-based workers continue to work and live in a “pressure cooker” environment in small and congested houses in urban slums.
• Construction workers encounter the relentless challenges of working in the blazing sun
• compounded by unbearably hot makeshift shelters near the worksite.
• Street vendors face income loss as the perishable goods they sell spoil rapidly, combined with a decline in customer traffic and additional expenses on water and shade.
• Women workers, constituting a substantial number of informal workers, find an increase in their care activity
• because of food spoilage, which leads to frequent cooking and cleaning, as well as taking care of the young, sick, and vulnerable in the family.
• Heat-related illnesses — greater fatigue, dehydration, increased anxiety and higher chances of heat stroke.
• The lack of “basic infrastructure”, such as drinking water and a sunshade at working sites, worsens the risk of these ailments.
• Most informal workers are not protected under any health insurance and incur out-of-pocket expenses for medical treatment
• which adds to their already shrinking income during the hot months.

Policy measures to mitigate the impact of heat waves on workers:

• It is essential to reimagine heat waves as not conventional disaster events, but as prolonged disasters
  • Moving from ad hoc, instruction-based response to linking HAPs with other long-term measures of urban planning and climate action plans (CAPs).
  • This should then translate into the NDMA working with other stakeholders in urban areas, like the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) and the Ministry of Labour and Employment (MoLE).
• There must be mandatory inclusion of wide categories of informal workers in urban areas and clearer guidelines at the national level
  • It will help states broaden them and innovate as per their contexts.
• The general divisions of indoor-outdoor work and the nature of impacts need to be investigated further to frame holistic guidelines and interventions as, in many cases, indoor workers also face extreme heat.
• There is a clear need for the inclusion of worker communities and voices in the preparation of action plans.
• Representations from worker welfare boards and bodies similar to the Town Vending Committees (TVC) for street vendors need to be roped in for the drafting and execution of HAPs in cities.
• The impact of heat is not gender-neutral and has a harsher bearing on women workers’ lives — heat stress plans need to factor in these realities.
• Recognise that heat waves mean losses — of income, health, and livelihoods — and welfare measures must compensate for these.
• Workers need system-wide protections, with state interventions and employers’ contributions, which include climate-resilient social protection systems and income protection, including compensation for loss of income.

Way Forward

• As the reforms in labour laws and the Labour Codes await implementation.
  • It will be critical to rethink many of them from the perspective of informal workers and the impact of climate change on work.
• Our urban imagination needs to be reconfigured, not only to ensure water, shade, and rest–eat–leisure spaces to mitigate heat wave impacts, but also to find more ways of advancing workers’ rights in cities.