General Studies Paper-3

Context: Recently, the Union Minister informed that India’s installed renewable energy capacity has increased by 165% over the past decade, rising from 76.38 Gigawatts (GW) in 2014 to 203.1 GW in 2024.

Key Facts

• Solar Power: Back in March 2014, Solar power generation was 2.82 GW, and it is around 85.47 GW of solar power in June 2024. That’s nearly 30 times the original capacity.
  • India achieved 4th position globally in RE (Renewable Energy) Installed Capacity.
• Wind Power: Wind turbines have been spinning their way to success too. It has surged from 21.04 GW to a breezy 46.66 GW in the same period.
  • India achieved 5th position globally in it.

Non-Fossil Fuel

• For the first time ever, India has surpassed the 200 GW mark from non-fossil fuel sources. It includes:
• 47 GW of solar power
• 93 GW of large hydro
• 66 GW of wind power
• 95 GW of biopower
• 00 GW of small hydropower

Budget and Tariff

• The budgetary allocation for the Ministry of Renewable Energy has doubled from Rs10,000 crores last year to more than Rs20,000 crores this year.
• Solar power tariffs have gone from Rs. 10.95 per unit in 2010-11 to a mere Rs. 2.60 in 2023-24.

Challenges Faced by the Renewable Energy Sector in India

• Financial Health of Power Distribution Companies (DISCOMs): The poor financial condition of power distribution companies (discoms), which are mostly owned by state governments.
  • Almost all renewable energy is purchased by such discoms, resulting in very long and unsustainable payment cycles.
• Land Utilisation and Availability: Issues such as lack of a proper Land Utilisation Policy, poorly maintained land records, land ceiling limits, and the task of obtaining permissions from local bodies act as roadblocks to the implementation of large-scale renewable energy projects.
• Rapid Demand Growth and Chronic Supply Shortages: India currently experiences a significant increase in energy demand driven by rapid economic growth, which necessitates a shift away from fossil fuels.
  • However, fossil fuels still dominate global energy consumption, continuing to raise GHG emission levels.

Government Efforts in India’s Renewable Energy Sector

• Permitting FDI: India has permitted FDI up to 100% under the automatic route to attract foreign investments.
• Waiver of Inter State Transmission System (ISTS) charges: For inter-state sale of solar and wind power for projects, ISTS charges have been waived off.
• Major Renewable Energy Schemes and Programmes:
  • Scheme for Development of Solar Parks and Ultra-mega Solar Power Projects;
  • Central Public Sector Undertaking (CPSU) Scheme Phase-II;
  • Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme ‘National Programme on High Efficiency Solar PV Modules’;
  • PM-KUSUM Scheme;
  • Rooftop Solar Programme Phase II;
  • Green Energy Corridors (GEC), and;
  • Bio-Energy Programme.
• Increasing Awareness: Efforts have been made by the Government to increase awareness about the use of renewable energy through introduction of various schemes and publicity through print and media.

Conclusion

• India’s record addition of renewable energy capacity in FY24 is a testament to the country’s commitment to a sustainable and green future.
• As the world grapples with the challenges of climate change, India’s strides in renewable energy offer a beacon of hope and a model for other countries to follow.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: The business summit of the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) was organized by the Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) and the Ministry of External Affairs.

Background

• BIMSTEC has been negotiating a proposed Free Trade Agreement (FTA) since 2004, with 22 rounds of talks held so far including the last round that was held in 2018.
• The Union Minister of Commerce & Industry that BIMSTEC members should re-examine the priorities of member nations so that the delayed Free Trade Agreement can be finalized.
• In 2004, Bimstec concluded the Framework Agreement on the Bimstec Free Trade Area.
  • The Framework Agreement encouraged the establishment of effective trade and investment facilitation measures, including simplification of customs procedures and development of mutual recognition arrangements

What is BIMSTEC?

• BIMSTEC is a regional organization that was established in 1997 with the signing of the Bangkok Declaration.
• Permanent Secretariat: Dhaka, Bangladesh
• Members: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Thailand, Myanmar and India.
• Significance: The BIMSTEC countries are home to 22 percent of the total world population and have a combined gross domestic product (GDP) of about $3.6 trillion.

India’s trade with BIMSTEC

• India’s total trade with BIMSTEC countries amounted to $44.32 billion in 2023-24.
• Thailand was India’s largest trading partner within the bloc, with exports worth $5.04 billion and imports at $9.91 billion, resulting in a trade gap of $4.87 billion.
• Bangladesh followed, with exports of $11.06 billion and imports of $1.84 billion, creating a trade balance of $9.22 billion in India’s favor.

What Is a Free Trade Agreement (FTA)?

• A free trade agreement is a pact between two or more nations to reduce barriers to imports and exports among them.
• Under a free trade policy, goods and services can be bought and sold across international borders with little or no government tariffs, quotas, subsidies, or prohibitions to inhibit their exchange.
• India has signed 13 Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs)/Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with various countries/regions namely, Japan, South Korea, countries of ASEAN region and countries of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), Mauritius, United Arab Emirates and Australia.

Benefits of BIMSTEC free trade agreement

• Increased Trade Flows: An FTA would reduce tariffs, non-tariff barriers, and other restrictions on trade, thereby increasing the volume of goods and services exchanged among BIMSTEC countries.
• Economic Integration: The FTA could lead to deeper economic integration, fostering closer economic ties and enhancing regional stability.
• Market Access: Member states would gain access to each other’s markets, which could help smaller countries like Bhutan and Nepal integrate more effectively into the global economy.
• Attraction of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): A more integrated market with reduced trade barriers would be more attractive to foreign investors, potentially increasing FDI flows into the region.

Way Ahead

• The business community of the countries and the governments will have to work together to find new pathways, new ways of engaging, and alternative solutions that are more practical to build up the momentum towards an FTA
• Payments in local currencies within this region along with better integration of custom borders, computerisation of border controls, and faster clearance of documents for imports and exports can help to improve the situation.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Delhi-NCR has topped the list of 10 cities for most days crossing ground-level ozone pollution levels.

About

• The analysis is based on granular, real-time data (15-minute averages) from the Central Pollution Control Board.
• The report analysed metropolitan areas of Bengaluru, Chennai, Kolkata, Mumbai and Pune.

Major Findings

• All 10 areas studied witnessed exceedances of the national ozone standard, with Delhi being the most affected.
• Ozone levels were elevated even at night, with Mumbai recording the most instances of night-time exceedances.
• The duration of ozone exposure is concerning, lasting an average of 12-15 hours across most cities, the researchers found.
• Summer is the peak season for ozone, the problem persists year-round in many areas, particularly in sunnier southern cities.
• Ozone accumulates not only in metropolitan areas but also travels long distances, creating a regional pollutant that demands both local and regional action.

Ground-Level Ozone (O3) Pollution

• There are two kinds of ozone:
  • High-altitude ozone or the “good ozone” that is high up in the atmosphere and forms a protective barrier around the Earth from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays.
  • Ground-level ozone or the “bad” ozone that forms closer to the Earth in the air we breathe. This ozone is not usually emitted directly, but rather forms from chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx ) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in sunlight. The term “ozone” is not to be confused with “smog,” another type of pollution that consists of ground-level ozone and other gaseous and particulate pollution.

Impact of Ozone

• Impact on human health: Breathing ground-level ozone can cause chest pain, coughing, throat irritation, and congestion. It can worsen bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma. Ozone also can reduce lung function and inflame the lining of the lungs.
• Impact on environment: Ozone damages vegetation and ecosystems by inhibiting the ability of plants to open the microscopic pores on their leaves to breathe.
  • It interferes with the photosynthesis process by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide the plants can process and release as oxygen.
• Impact on crops: The increase in ozone levels impacted agriculture globally, with ozone-induced crop losses averaging 4.4 percent–12.4 percent for staples.
  • Losses for wheat and soybean were as high as 15 percent-30 percent in key agricultural areas of India and China.

Air Pollution

• When harmful substances (pollutants) – particles, gases, or matter – are released into the air and reduce its quality, the air is polluted.
• Common air pollutants include: Particulate Matter (PM), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Ozone (O3), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), Lead etc.
• Source: These pollutants can originate from natural sources such as volcanic eruptions and wildfires, but human activities such as industrial production, transportation, agriculture, and residential heating are significant contributors to air pollution.

Steps Taken by Government of India to combat Air Pollution

• National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Launched in 2019, NCAP is a comprehensive initiative with the goal of reducing air pollution in identified cities and regions across India.
  • The program focuses on improving air quality monitoring, implementing stricter emission standards, and promoting public awareness.
• Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) Emission Standards: The government implemented BS-VI emission standards for vehicles nationwide in 2020.
  • These standards aim to reduce vehicular emissions by mandating the use of cleaner fuel and more advanced emission control technologies.
• Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY): The PMUY scheme aims to provide clean cooking fuel to households by promoting the use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as an alternative to traditional biomass-based cooking methods.
• FAME (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles) Scheme: The FAME scheme promotes the adoption of electric and hybrid vehicles to reduce air pollution caused by vehicular emissions.
  • Incentives are provided to both manufacturers and consumers to encourage the use of electric vehicles.
• Green Initiatives for Sustainable Habitat (GRIHA): GRIHA is an initiative to promote sustainable and environmentally friendly practices in the construction and operation of buildings.
  • It encourages the use of energy-efficient technologies and materials to reduce pollution.
• Waste Management Programs: Proper waste management is crucial to prevent the burning of waste, which contributes to air pollution.
  • Various waste management initiatives, including the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, aim to address solid waste issues and promote cleaner disposal methods.
• Commission for Air Quality Management: The Commission has been set up for Air Quality Management in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas for better coordination, research, identification, and resolution of problems surrounding the air quality index.

Way Ahead

• Insufficient monitoring, limited data, and ineffective trend analysis methods have hampered understanding of this growing public health risk.
• The complex chemistry of ground-level ozone makes it a difficult pollutant to track and mitigate.
• Stringent regulations are needed to curb nitrogen oxide emissions from vehicles, industries and other sources.

There is a need for a multi-pronged approach to air pollution control in India.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: There’s an optimistic belief that India’s economic growth is inevitable .

• But previous countries with similar growth trajectories have often failed to transition to developed status.

India’s Status

• India’s journey towards becoming a developed nation by 2047 hinges significantly on improving its infrastructure, a cornerstone for fostering liveable, climate-resilient, and inclusive cities that drive economic growth.
  • From 1991 to 2011, India’s poverty rate dropped from about 50% to 20%, lifting 35 crore people out of poverty.
  • While income inequality persists, overall living standards have improved, especially for those at the bottom of the economic pyramid.
• Present Scenario :
• India’s real GDP is projected to grow between 6.5–7 per cent in 2024-25. The Indian economy recovered swiftly from the pandemic, with its real GDP in FY24 being 20 per cent higher than the pre-COVID, FY20 levels.
• The World Bank in June 2024 predicted that India is set to remain the fastest-growing major economy globally, though its growth rate is expected to slow.
  • It maintained the GDP growth forecast for India at 6.6 per cent for FY25.

Challenges

• Agricultural Sector: 46% of India’s labor force is in agriculture, which is low-productivity and contributes only 18% to GDP.
• Female Labor Force Participation: At 37%, this is low compared to other countries like China, Vietnam, and Japan.
• Middle-Income Trap: Many countries fail to progress from middle-income to high-income status.
• There is difficulty in leveraging surplus labour for low-end manufacturing, limiting growth opportunities.
• Indian States face cost disabilities for power, logistics and financing, coupled with low labour productivity when compared to countries such as Bangladesh, China and Vietnam, and a compliance burden that deters new players from entering and the existing ones from expanding
• India lags behind in HDI rank mainly because of its low life expectancy and per capita income, which can be improved with government spending in the education and health sectors.

Suggestions

• India’s focus should be on Manufacturing and To grow, India should emulate successful models like South Korea and Vietnam by focusing on low-skilled, export-oriented manufacturing.
  • Prioritize low-skilled manufacturing sectors like electronics and apparel to create large-scale employment.
• There is a need to avoid protectionism because large tariffs could harm industries dependent on imported components, raising prices and reducing competitiveness.
• The government should develop industrial clusters with modern infrastructure, education, healthcare, and other amenities.
• There is a need to maintain a market-led economy with minimal government interference, improve ease of doing business, and foster private enterprise.
• Track inter-State migration, urbanization, female labor force participation, and the decline of agriculture’s employment share to assess progress.
• With ambitious and forward-thinking strategies, India can achieve its economic goals and fulfil its potential.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Geological Survey of India (GSI) has carried out exploration of geothermal energy in various recognized geothermal fields which includes collection of data on temperature, discharge, and quality/chemistry of water in different geothermal fields.

Major Highlights

• GSI has studied 381 thermally anomalous areas across India and has published a report titled ‘Geothermal Atlas of India, 2022’.
• Potential: A potential of about 10,600 MW of geothermal power has been estimated in the country.
• Projects: Singareni Collieries Company Limited (SCCL) has commissioned a 20 kW pilot geothermal power plant in Manuguru area of Bhadradri Kothagudem district in Telangana.
  • The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is implementing a “Renewable Energy Research and Technology Development Programme (RE-RTD)” to develop indigenous technologies and manufacturing for widespread applications of new and renewable energy in an efficient and cost-effective manner.
  • MNRE provides up to 100% financial support to Government/non-profit research organizations and upto 70% to Industry, start-ups, private Institutes, entrepreneur, and manufacturing units under Renewable Energy Research and Technology Development Programme, including for geothermal energy R&D projects.
• Collaborations with international organisations/countries to advance geothermal energy efforts in India, include: –
  • Under the aegis of the MoU signed in 2007 between India and Iceland, both the sides have identified Geothermal as an area of cooperation.
  • India has signed an MoU with Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 2019, wherein, Geothermal has been identified as an area of cooperation.
  • Under the Renewable Energy Technology Action Platform (RETAP) launched in 2023 between India and USA, Geothermal has been identified as a focus area.

Geothermal Energy

• Geothermal energy is a type of renewable energy that comes from the heat stored within the Earth.
• This heat is produced by the natural decay of radioactive materials and by the heat that’s left over from the planet’s formation.

Ways to Harness Geothermal Energy:

• Geothermal Power Plants: These use steam from heated water reservoirs beneath the Earth’s surface to drive turbines connected to electricity generators. There are three main types:
  • Dry Steam Plants: Directly use steam from a geothermal reservoir to turn the turbines.
  • Flash Steam Plants: Pull high-pressure hot water into lower-pressure tanks to create steam.
  • Binary Cycle Plants: Transfer heat from geothermal hot water to another liquid with a lower boiling point, which vaporizes and drives the turbine.
• Geothermal Heat Pumps: These systems use the Earth’s constant temperature to heat and cool buildings. In winter, they bring heat from the ground into buildings, and in summer, they transfer heat from buildings back into the ground.
• Direct Use Applications: Geothermal energy can also be used directly for heating buildings, growing plants in greenhouses, drying crops, and even in some industrial processes.
• Geothermal District Heating: In some areas, geothermal energy is used to provide heating for entire communities or districts through a network of pipes.
• Drawbacks: It can have some environmental impacts, such as land subsidence and the potential for induced seismicity (earthquakes triggered by human activity).
  • Geothermal resources are often location-specific, which means they are most effective in regions with significant geothermal activity, such as Iceland, parts of the United States (like California and Nevada), and the Pacific Ring of Fire.

Significance:

• Renewable and Sustainable: Geothermal energy is a renewable resource because the heat from the Earth is continually replenished.
  • Unlike fossil fuels, which are finite, geothermal energy can provide a consistent and reliable source of power and heating.
• Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Geothermal energy systems produce very low levels of greenhouse gases compared to fossil fuels.
  • This makes it a cleaner alternative that helps mitigate climate change and reduce air pollution.
• Diverse Applications: Beyond electricity generation, geothermal energy can be used for direct heating applications, cooling, and in various industrial processes. This versatility enhances its value as a multipurpose energy source.
• Low Operating Costs: Once a geothermal power plant or heat pump system is installed, the operational and maintenance costs are relatively low compared to other energy sources. This can result in lower long-term energy costs.
• Reduced Water Usage: Geothermal power plants generally use less water than conventional power plants, which is particularly advantageous in water-scarce regions.

General Studies Paper-3

Context: According to a report Mumbai has witnessed the maximum rise in sea levels (4.44 cm) among 15 Indian coastal cities between 1987 to 2021.

Major Highlights of the Report

• The report presents information on changes in sea levels under historical and future climate scenarios for 15 Indian coastal cities and towns.
• Mumbai is followed by Haldia, Visakhapatnam, Kochi, Paradip, and Chennai.
• Future Outlook: The rise in sea levels will continue until the end of the century under all scenarios in all 15 cities and towns, with the highest rise predicted for Mumbai.
• The socio-economic factors such as population, education, and urbanisation might affect greenhouse gas emissions over the next century, thereby impacting climate change.
• Land Submersion: More than 10% of the land in Mumbai, Yanam, and Thoothukudi, 5%–10% in Panaji and Chennai, and 1%–5% in Kochi, Mangalore, Visakhapatnam, Haldia, Udupi, Paradip, and Puri would be submerged due to rise in sea levels by 2040.
• Key sectors that will be impacted include water, agriculture, forest and biodiversity, and health.
  • The beaches, backwaters, and mangrove forests are particularly at risk, impacting biodiversity and tourism.
• Reason: Climate change brought on by fossil-fuel burning and greenhouse gas emissions has led to a steady increase in global temperatures.
  • As a result, sea surface temperatures and glacier melting have increased, eventually rising sea levels and posing a major threat to coastal cities worldwide, including Indian coastal cities.

Climate Change

• Climate change refers to long-term shifts in global or regional climate patterns.
• It’s primarily driven by human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes, which release greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane into the atmosphere.
• These gases trap heat, causing the Earth’s temperature to rise—a phenomenon known as global warming.
• Impact: It threatens the essential ingredients of good health – clean air, safe drinking water, nutritious food supply and safe shelter – and has the potential to undermine decades of progress in global health.

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

• It is an international treaty that came into force in 1994.
• Aim: To stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that will prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system.

Key features of the UNFCCC:

• Parties and Membership: The Convention has 198 members.
• Conference of the Parties (COP): It is the supreme decision-making body of the UNFCCC and COP meetings are held annually.
• Funds to Developing Countries: Industrialized nations agree under the Convention to support climate change activities in developing countries by providing financial support for action on climate change– above and beyond any financial assistance they already provide to these countries.
• Kyoto Protocol: It was adopted in 1997 and establishes legally binding emission reduction targets for developed countries.
  • It operates under the framework of the UNFCCC and has its own decision-making body, the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP).
• Paris Agreement: Adopted in 2015 at COP21 in Paris, it is an international treaty that builds upon the UNFCCC.
  • It aims to limit global warming to below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to limit the increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
  • The Paris Agreement emphasizes nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and encourages all countries to take climate action.

India’s Efforts to Combat Climate Change

• Renewable Energy Expansion: India has set ambitious targets for renewable energy generation, aiming to increase its capacity significantly.
  • The country has invested heavily in solar and wind energy projects, with the goal of reducing reliance on fossil fuels and lowering greenhouse gas emissions.
• International Commitments: India is a signatory to the Paris Agreement, committing to reduce its carbon intensity and increase the share of non-fossil fuel energy sources in its total energy mix.
  • India has announced its aim to meet 50% of its electricity demands from renewable energy sources by 2030.
• Afforestation and Forest Conservation: Recognizing the role of forests in carbon sequestration and climate regulation, India has initiated programs to increase forest cover, restore degraded lands, and promote sustainable forest management practices.
• Clean Transportation: India is promoting the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) and has set a target of 30% EV market share by 2030.
  • The government has introduced incentives and subsidies to support the production and adoption of EVs.
• Climate Resilience: India is investing in measures to enhance climate resilience and adaptation, particularly in vulnerable sectors such as agriculture, water resources, and coastal areas.
  • This includes the development of climate-resilient crop varieties, water conservation techniques, and disaster preparedness measures.
• International Cooperation: India actively participates in international forums and collaborations on climate change, engaging in initiatives such as the International Solar Alliance and the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Recent exit of Bangladesh’s Prime Minister from power could jeopardise India-Bangladesh relationships and affect growing trade ties, restricting the movement of people and goods, and stalling a potential free trade agreement (FTA) between the two countries.

India-Bangladesh Ties

• Beginning: India’s relationship with Bangladesh is anchored in common history, heritage, culture and geographical proximity, the foundation of which was laid in the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War.
• India provided critical military and material support to assist Bangladesh in its fight for independence from Pakistan.
  • It became a primary factor in shaping the newly independent nation’s policy, as acknowledged by ‘Bangabandhu’ Sheikh Mujibur Rahman: ‘Friendship with India is a cornerstone of the foreign policy of Bangladesh’.
• But There was a rise in anti-India sentiment in the mid-1970s over issues ranging from boundary disputes and insurgency to the sharing of water.

Bilateral Trade

• Significance: Bangladesh is India’s largest trading partner in the subcontinent, while India ranks as Bangladesh’s second-largest partner in Asia after China.
• Trade Volume: In the financial year 2023-24, their total bilateral trade amounted to $13 billion.

Exports and Imports:

• Bangladesh is the biggest export destination for India’s cotton, accounting for 34.9% of India’s total cotton exports (some $2.4 billion in FY24). Other major Indian exports to Bangladesh are petroleum products and cereals.
• India’s top import from Bangladesh are readymade garments, amounting to $391 million in FY24.

Free Trade Agreement (FTA) Discussions

• In October 2023, India and Bangladesh initiated discussions on a FTA during a meeting of the Joint Working Group on Trade in Dhaka. An FTA would reduce or eliminate customs duties, promote further trade, and facilitate investments.
  • A 2012 working paper published by the World Bank estimated that a full FTA for goods would increase Bangladesh’s exports to India by 182%, whereas a partial FTA could lead to a 134% increase.
  • However, an FTA accompanied with improved transport infrastructure and better connectivity could see Bangladesh’s exports rise to 297%.
  • India, too, would see an increase to its exports by as much as 172% in this scenario.
• Potential Impact: Sheikh Hasina’s departure could stall progress on the FTA, affecting market access and economic ties between the two nations.

Infrastructure and Connectivity

• Growing Ties: Infrastructure development and connectivity have been crucial aspects of India-Bangladesh relations.
• Lines of Credit: India extended three lines of credit to Bangladesh since 2016, totaling $8 billion. These funds were earmarked for road, rail, shipping, and port infrastructure development.
  • The Akhaura-Agartala rail link was inaugurated that connects Bangladesh and the northeast through Tripura.
  • It is likely to boost small-scale industries and develop Assam and Tripura.
  • The Maitree Express connecting Kolkata with Dhaka was started in 2008 after a hiatus of over 40 years.
  • Bangladesh is also part of the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) which has its headquarters in Dhaka.
• Uncertainty: With an interim Bangladeshi government in place, the continuity of these infrastructure projects remains uncertain.
• Regional Stability: Stable infrastructure and connectivity contribute to regional stability and economic growth.
  • A disruption in Indo-Bangladesh ties could thus restrict India’s access to the Northeast, which will be connected to mainland India only through the narrow ‘Chicken’s Neck’ — only 22 km at its narrowest — between West Bengal and Assam.

Regional Geopolitics

• Influence from Jamaat-e-Islami and Pakistan: Sheikh Hasina’s departure may lead to increased influence from groups like Jamaat-e-Islami, which historically had ties with Pakistan. This could impact regional dynamics and stability.

Other Ongoing Issues and Concerns

• Teesta dispute: The issue revolves around the sharing of Teesta’s waters, with Bangladesh seeking an equitable distribution.
• Rohingya issue: The Bangladesh government aims for the peaceful repatriation of Rohingyas to Myanmar, but it’s talks with the military junta have been unsuccessful so far.
• Cross-border terrorism and infiltration are additional threats to internal security. The rise of majoritarian forces adds another layer to the complex landscape.
• China Factor: India’s concern is the deepening relationship between Bangladesh and China, marked by the substantial Chinese investments in infrastructure in recent years.

Conclusion

• Bangladesh’s Prime Minister resignation introduces complexities and challenges for India-Bangladesh relations. The movement of people, goods, and the progress of critical agreements like the FTA hang in the balance.
• As the situation unfolds, both countries will need to navigate this transition carefully to maintain their positive trajectory of cooperation and friendship.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: In a significant ruling, the Supreme Court of India has upheld the right of states to sub-classify SCs and STs for the purpose of providing reservation benefits. It recognises that these communities are not monolithic; rather, they exhibit varying degrees of social backwardness.

Background: Roots of the Case (Chronology of the Event)

• The case has its origins in 1975 when the Punjab government issued a notification dividing its 25% SC reservation into two categories.
• The first category reserved seats solely for the Balmiki and Mazhabi Sikh communities, which were economically and educationally backward.
• The second category included the rest of the SC communities.
• Legal challenges arose when a similar law introduced by Andhra Pradesh in 2000 was struck down by a five-judge Constitution Bench in 2004.

2004 Decision and Its Reversal

• In 2004, the Supreme Court held in the E V Chinnaiah v State of Andhra Pradesh case that the SC/ST list is a ‘homogenous group’ and cannot be further divided.
• The court ruled that any attempt to create differentiation within the SC list would violate the Constitution’s provisions.
• Consequently, sub-classifying SCs was considered impermissible.

Committees for Sub-categorisation

• Committee of Secretaries: It is a five members committee comprising the Secretaries of the Home Ministry, Law Ministry, Tribal Affairs Ministry, and Social Justice Ministry and it is chaired by the Cabinet Secretary.
  • Mandate: To look at strategies like special initiatives, focusing existing schemes towards them, etc.
    • The Committee needs not to deviate into policy matters like reservation or break-up of SC quota for employment and education.
    • There is no deadline given to present its findings. However, it has been asked to do so at the earliest.

Recent Verdict

• In August 2024, a seven-judge Bench, led by Chief Justice of India, overturned the 2004 decision.
• The new ruling permits states to create sub-classifications within the SC and ST categories.
• These sub-classifications aim to provide wider protections, particularly through fixed sub-quotas, to the most backward communities within SCs and STs.
• This decision recognises that not all SCs and STs face identical levels of disadvantage.
• Justice B.R. Gavai’s opinion stands out: he advocates for introducing the ‘Creamy Layer’ exception for SCs and STs, similar to what exists for Other Backward Classes (OBCs).
• The ‘Creamy Layer’ concept sets an income ceiling for reservation eligibility, ensuring that benefits reach those who genuinely need them.

Why Sub-Classification Matters?

• Diverse Social Realities: The SCs and STs encompass a wide range of communities with distinct histories, cultures, and socio-economic conditions. Treating them as a homogenous group overlooks these nuances.
• Targeted Benefits: Sub-classification allows states to tailor reservation policies to address specific degrees of disadvantage. By identifying the most marginalised sub-groups, the benefits can be more effectively targeted.

Significance of Recent Judgements

• Graded Inequalities: The principal argument for sub-categorisation of SCs has been the graded inequalities among SC communities.
  • The thrust of it has been that even among the marginalised, there are communities that have lesser access to basic facilities.
• Unequal Representation: Some communities are more backward and have less representation than others.
  • For instance, the Madiga community has claimed that the benefits, including that of reservation, meant for the SC category had been cornered by the Mala community, with the Madigas being left out.
• Legal Standpoint: A five-judge Bench headed by Justice Arun Mishra has affirmed the competence of the States to give preferential treatment to the weakest among the Scheduled Castes without depriving other castes of any benefit.
  • The Court has noted that the Scheduled Castes list contains many castes and cannot be treated as a homogeneous group.
• Equitable Distribution of Benefits: The Union government has formed a committee of Secretaries to evaluate and work out a method for the equitable distribution of benefits, schemes, and initiatives to the most backward communities amongst the over 1,200 Scheduled Castes across the country.
• Recognizing Diversity: The court acknowledged that ‘historical and empirical evidence indicates that Scheduled castes are not a homogenous class’
  • This recognition of diversity within the SC community is a departure from the earlier stance.

States and Communities Affected

• Maharashtra:
• Mahar Community: Politically active and relatively literate, the Mahar community has made significant strides. Notably, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, a Mahar himself, played a pivotal role in drafting India’s Constitution.
• Matang Community: The second-largest SC community in Maharashtra, the Matangs are predominantly Hindu.
• Tribes: Gond and Bhil are the largest tribes in the state.
• Rajasthan:
• Meghwal Community: The largest SC community in Rajasthan, the Meghwals are spread across the state, particularly in border districts.
• Bairwa and Jatav: Dominant in eastern Rajasthan.
• Meena Tribe: Influential in electoral outcomes and well-represented in police and bureaucracy.
• Bhil Tribe: Some Bhils do not consider themselves Hindu and have rallied behind a new tribal party.
• Odisha:
  • Khond Tribe: Numerically the largest tribal group in Odisha, residing mainly in southern districts.
  • Santal Tribe: Second-largest tribal group, followed by the Gonds.
  • SC Communities: The Pan community is dominant among the SCs in Odisha.
• Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Gujarat, Assam, Tripura, and Uttarakhand etc are the most affected states in India.

Possible Hurdles

• These are primarily based on the legal and practical challenges associated with it.
• Legal Challenges: The Supreme Court held that the State did not have the power to unilaterally sub-categorise communities in the list of SCs or Scheduled Tribes (STs).
  • The Constitution has provided that these lists can only be made by Parliament and notified by the President.
• Data of socio-economic status: The population data related to SC, ST, and OBC categories are not updated since the 2011 census.
• It hampers the objective and scientific basis for sub-categorisation.
• Untouchability: The social and educational backwardness cannot be applied to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The special treatment is given to the SCs due to untouchability with which they have suffered since ages.

What Lies Ahead?

• States now have the authority to identify different degrees of social backwardness within SCs and STs.
  • By sub-classifying, they can tailor reservation policies to address specific needs.
• The ruling acknowledges that SCs and STs are not monolithic; their experiences vary significantly.

Conclusion

• The court’s decision opens the door to more nuanced and effective affirmative action. By recognising diversity within SCs and STs, we move closer to a fairer and more equitable society.
• It opens up new possibilities for affirmative action, allowing states to address the unique challenges faced by different sub-groups within SCs and STs. It also sparks discussions about whether the OBC model’s ‘creamy layer’ could serve as a blueprint for ensuring targeted benefits reach those who need them most

General Studies Paper-3

Context: Recently, only ₹90,000 was released as ‘unemployment allowance’ in 2023-24 under Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA).

About

• The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), enacted in 2005, aims to enhance the livelihood security of households in rural areas.
• It is one of the largest public workfare programs in the world and has been instrumental in addressing the issue of rural poverty and unemployment in India.
• One of its key objectives is to ensure that work is provided promptly to those who demand it.

Key Provisions

• Guaranteed Employment: MGNREGA guarantees at least 100 days of unskilled work per year for every rural household that seeks it. This work can include projects related to water conservation, land development, construction, agriculture, and allied activities.
• Decentralised planning: The program is implemented through Gram Panchayats, which are local self-governance institutions, ensuring decentralised planning and implementation.
• Demand-Driven Approach: Unlike top-down programs, MGNREGA is demand-driven.
  • As per the Section 7(1) of MGNREGA, if a household requests work, it must be provided within 15 days. If not, the worker is entitled to a daily unemployment allowance.
  • It is meant to provide relief to workers when work is not provided despite their demand.
• Wage Payments: Unskilled workers must receive their wages within 15 days. In case of delays, the central government compensates them.
• Coverage: MGNREGA covers all rural districts in India except those with a 100% urban population. It’s a lifeline for rural households, especially during challenging times.
• Statutory Limit: Wages must be paid according to thewages specified for agricultural labourers in the state under the Minimum Wages Act, 1948.
• Social Security Measures: The program provides for a number of social security measures such as unemployment allowances and pension schemes for the aged and widows.
• Transparency and Accountability: MGNREG Aprovides for transparency and accountability through the use of biometric tools and a transparent complaint redressal mechanism.

Unemployment Allowance (Figures)

• In the financial year 2023-24, various states released a mere ₹90,000 as unemployment allowance. To put this in perspective, the corresponding figure in the previous year (2022-23) was ₹8 lakh.
• Clearly, there has been a significant drop in disbursals, raising concerns about the effectiveness of MGNREGA in addressing rural unemployment.

State-Level Disbursals

• In the last two financial years (2022-23 and 2023-24), only six states disbursed the unemployment allowance.
• In the preceding years (2021-22 and 2020-21), the numbers were even lower—only three and four states, respectively, paid the allowance.

Underlying Issues

• Unavailability of Work: Work is often unavailable for beneficiaries. Despite their demand, suitable employment opportunities are scarce. This situation exacerbates rural economic distress.
• Delayed Registration of Demand: Block-level functionaries responsible for registering work demand may not do so in real time. Consequently, formal data on MGNREGA work demand may not accurately reflect the true demand.
• Flawed Reporting System: The reporting system for MGNREGA has its flaws. Work demanded is only reported on the portal when actual employment is provided.
  • It may be driven by a desire to reduce the state government’s liability towards unemployment allowance.

Other Challenges

• Funding: Adequate funding is crucial to sustain the program. Budget allocations need to keep pace with demand.
• Effective Implementation: Ensuring timely work provision and wage payments remains a challenge. The recent release of only ₹90,000 as “unemployment allowance” in FY 2023-24 highlights this issue.
• Monitoring and Accountability: Strengthening monitoring mechanisms and social audits can enhance transparency and accountability.

Conclusion

• The low disbursal of unemployment allowance undermines the very purpose of MGNREGA. As we strive for inclusive growth and rural development, addressing this chronic issue should be a priority.
• States must take proactive measures to ensure timely employment and fair compensation for workers who rely on this vital safety net.

General Studies Paper -2 

Context: The National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) launched the Women Entrepreneurship Programme.

About

• The initiative aims to empower 25 lakh women across India, providing them with the skills, knowledge, and resources needed to start and grow successful businesses.
• Divided into two phases, NSDC, with support from the National Institute for Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development (NIESBUD), will offer free online self-learning entrepreneurship courses through the Skill India Digital Hub (SIDH) as part of the programme.
• In the next phase, NSDC extends incubation support to 10,000 shortlisted contestants across 100 business models.

Challenges faced by Women Entrepreneurs in India

• Low risk taking ability: The women in India mostly lead a protected life, are less educated, less trained and get low financial support. Thus, they are not able to bear the amount of risk that is required for running an enterprise.
• Male-Dominated Society: Traditional Indian society is male-dominated, where women are often seen as subordinate to men. Women are restricted from pursuing entrepreneurial ventures, limiting their growth and prosperity.
• Conflict with Family commitments: Running a business often conflicts with family responsibilities, making it challenging for women to balance both.
• Mobility Constraints: Safety issues and societal expectations restrict their movement for business purposes.
• Access to Technology: Women face challenges in accessing the latest technology and integrating digital solutions into their business models, putting them at a disadvantage compared to male entrepreneurs.

Government Initiatives

• MUDRA Loans: It provides credit specifically for women entrepreneurs. It facilitates financial support for women-led businesses and startups.
• Stand-Up India Scheme: It encourages entrepreneurship among women by providing easy access to financing. It aims to promote self-employment and business ventures led by women.
• Trade Related Entrepreneurship Assistance and Development” (TREAD): The scheme envisages economic empowerment of such women through trade related training, information and counseling extension activities related to trades, products, services etc.

Under the scheme, there is a provision for the Government of India to grant up to 30% of the loan/ credit maximum up to Rs. 30.00 lakh as appraised by lending institutions/ banks.