Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

Tamil Nadu government formed a committee to set up an institutional framework for the effective conservation of vultures. 

• Tamil Nadu boasts the largest population of vultures south of the Vindhiya Mountain Range.
• Alarmed at the 96% decline in India’s vulture population between 1993 and 2003, the Central government put into place two action plans to protect the species at the national level: the first in 2006 and the second, ongoing plan for 2020-2025.
• One of the important action points in this nationwide plan is the formation of State-level committees to save the critically endangered population of vultures.
• Vulture numbers are decreasing over the last few years, with experts attributing the cause to lesser availability of prey as well as erratic weather. 
• Experts also agree that the use of some Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs to treat cattle has led to the crash in vulture populations across India.
• The State government has banned the use of diclofenac to treat cattle, while there are strict restrictions for the sale of other NSAIDs in the Nilgiris, Erode and Coimbatore districts.

The State is home to four species of vultures — 

• The white-rumped vulture (Gyps bengalensis), 
• Long-billed vultures (Gyps indicus), 
• The Asian king-vulture (Sarcogyps calvus) 
• The Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus).

The white-rumped vulture (Gyps bengalensis)

• This species qualifies as Critically Endangered because it has suffered an extremely rapid population decline of >99% over three generations.
• When it was first assessed in 1988 it was classified as a Least concern species owing to a large range and population.
• It was reassessed from a Least Concern to Near Threatened species in the 2007 IUCN Red List.
• In 2012 it was added to the list of Endangered species.
• Gyps bengalensis occurs in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and southern Viet Nam, and may be extinct in southern China and Malaysia (BirdLife International 2001).

The long-billed vulture

• The Indian vulture/long billed vulture is native to India, Pakistan and Nepal.
• It has been listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List since 2002.
• Indian vultures died of kidney failure caused by diclofenac poisoning. It breeds mainly on hilly crags in central and peninsular India.
• The Indian vulture and the white-romped vulture have suffered a 99%–97% population decrease in Bangladesh, Pakistan and India.
• Diclofenac is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and when given to working animals it can reduce joint pain and so keep them working for longer.
• The drug is believed to be swallowed by vultures with the flesh of dead cattle who were given diclofenac in their last days of life.

The Red-headed vulture

• The red-headed vulture also known as the Asian king vulture, Indian black vulture or Pondicherry vulture is mainly found in the Indian subcontinent, with small populations in some parts of Southeast Asia.
• It has no subspecies.
• Today the range of the red-headed vulture is localized primarily to northern India.
• It was up listed to critically endangered in the 2007 IUCN Red List.

The Egyptian vulture

• The Egyptian vulture also called the white scavenger vulture or pharaoh’s chicken, is only member of the genus Neophron.
• It is widely distributed from the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa to India
• IUCN Red List Status: Endangered.

Conservation Initiatives:

National Board for Wildlife(NBWL) has approved an Action Plan for Vulture Conservation 2020-2025. Key highlights of the plan include,

• Vulture Conservation Centre: Uttar Pradesh, Tripura, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu will get a vulture conservation and breeding centre.
• Vulture Safe zone: Establishment of at least one vulture-safe zone in each state for the conservation of the remnant populations in that state.
• Rescue Centres: Establishment of four rescue centres, in Pinjore (Haryana), Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh), Guwahati (Assam) and Hyderabad (Telangana). There are currently no dedicated rescue centres for treating vultures.
• Toxic Drugs: A system to automatically remove a drug from veterinary use if it is found to be toxic to vultures with the help of the Drugs Controller General of India.
• Vultures Census: Coordinated nationwide vulture counting involving forest departments, the Bombay Natural History Society, research institutes, nonprofits and members of the public. This would be for getting a more accurate estimate of the size of vulture populations in the country.
• Database on Threats to Vulture: A database on emerging threats to vulture conservation including collision and electrocution, unintentional poisoning.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

With winter around the corner, air pollution levels rise at an alarming rate. Stubble burning, vehicular emissions, construction activities, fire crackers and other factors contribute to degrading air quality. 

These can lead to breathing issues and aggravate diseases and health conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), respiratory infections and cardiovascular diseases.

Concerns

• Stubble burning, vehicular emissions, construction activities, fire crackers contribute to degrading air quality.
• These can lead to breathing issues and aggravate diseases and health conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), respiratory infections and cardiovascular diseases.
• The World Health Organisation (WHO) has declared air pollution as a public health emergency and more than 90 per cent of the global pollution is enduring toxic, polluted outdoor air.
• Smog is a mixture of smoke and air pollution, can damage lungs.
• Smog can comprise airborne particulate matter, mostly PM 2.5 and PM 10, that can have adverse health effects.

PM 2.5 over PM 10

• This is a fine, inhalable particle, generally 2.5 micrometres of diameter or smaller. 
• The combustion of gasoline, oil, diesel fuel or wood produces much of the PM 2.5. 
• Due to its smaller size, the particulate matter can be drawn deep in the lungs and can be more harmful as compared to PM 10. 
• It can penetrate the lung deeply, irritate and corrode the epithelial walls and consequently impair lung function.
• PM 2.5 have small diameters but they can spread over large surface areas. 
• They are “capable of carrying various toxic stuff, passing through the filtration of nose hair, reaching the end of the respiratory tract with airflow and accumulating there by diffusion, damaging other parts of the body through air exchange in the lung.
• The ‘Harvard Six Cities Study’, published in 1996, revealed that PM 2.5 was one of the causative factors of human non-accidental death.
• In this study, PM 2.5 was positively related to daily morality of humans, particularly the elderly (RR =1.5 per cent, 95 per cent CI: 1.1–1.9 per cent).”

Pollution Impacts 

• While it is a common notion that air pollution mostly affects lungs,
• Other body organs too can be damaged due to continuous exposure to polluted air. 
• For instance, air pollution can damage skin and cause premature ageing and problems like rashes, wrinkles, discoloration, pigmentation and so on. 
• Exposure to polluted outdoor air has been proven to be harmful to the human eye. 
• Common eye problems caused by pollution are watery eyes, soreness, redness, itching sensation, dry eyes and allergy. 
• Other than this, air pollution can have adverse effects on the cardiovascular, nervous, digestive and urinary systems. 
• Due to air pollution, there have been increasing cases of heart diseases and cancer.

AQI levels mean

• As air pollution is increasing day by day, it is important to adopt various measures and steps to minimise the harmful impact on your health. 
• To know about the air quality, you can easily refer to the air quality index (AQI), which is a daily measure of the quality of air. 
• The main purpose is to calculate or measure how air pollution affects health and help people become more aware, especially those who suffer from serious or chronic illnesses caused by exposure to pollutants. 

The categories of AQI are: 

• Good (0-50), 
• Satisfactory (51–100), 
• Moderately polluted (101–200), 
• Poor (201–300), 
• Very poor (301–400), 
• Severe (401-500).

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

A recent genealogical study of the largest captive herd in India at the Alipore Zoological Garden in Kolkata has confirmed that the individuals in this facility, at least, are most likely “critically endangered” Nubian giraffes ( Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis) or the endangered Rothschild giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi).

• The Nubian giraffes are believed to be among three sub-species of the northern giraffe, according to a whole genome sequencing study conducted in 2021. 
• A genetic distance analysis of the giraffes in Alipore showed that they were most closely related to Nubian and Rothschild giraffes.
• “Stud-books” maintained in zoos across India had little to no information on where the giraffes brought to India from Africa had been captured, so the only way to identify the species would be through a mitochondrial gene study.
• As giraffes are an exotic species that was imported into India, protocols to manage the populations were different when compared to animals that are native to the country.

Nubian Giraffes

• Nubian giraffes (or Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis) are believed to be among three sub-species of the northern giraffe.
• It is found in Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, South Sudan and Sudan.
• It is currently extinct in the wild of the Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt and Eritrea.
• The Nubian giraffe used to be widespread in northeast Africa.
• IUCN status: ‘critically endangered’.

Rothschild Giraffe

• Rothschild giraffe (or Giraffa camelopardalis Rothschild) is a subspecies of the Northern giraffe.
• The Rothschild’s giraffe is easily distinguishable from other subspecies. The most obvious sign is in the colouring of the coat or pelt.
• They live in savannahs, grasslands, and open woodlands of Uganda and Kenya.
• IUCN status: ‘endangered’

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

Recently, the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs under the chairmanship of Prime Minister approved the increase in the Minimum Support Prices (MSP) for all mandated rabi crops for marketing season 2023-24. 

• The MSP announced an increase of 2% to 9% in the Minimum Support Prices (MSP) for six mandated rabi crops for this season.
• For wheat, the MSP is ₹2,125 for a quintal. Last year, the price was ₹2,015 and the increase this year ₹110. 
• For lentil, (Masur) the increase is ₹500 per quintal (₹6000) followed by rapeseed and mustard at ₹400 per quintal (₹5,450). 
• For safflower, Centre approved an increase of ₹ 209 per quintal (₹ 5,650). 
• For gram and barley also the increase is ₹ 105 (₹5,335) and ₹ 100 (₹ 1,735) respectively per quintal.

Three kinds of Production cost

• The CACP projects three kinds of production cost for every crop, both at state and all-India average levels.
• ‘A2’: Covers all paid-out costs directly incurred by the farmer in cash and kind on seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, hired labour, leased-in land, fuel, irrigation, etc.
• ‘A2+FL’: Includes A2 plus an imputed value of unpaid family labour.
• ‘C2’: It is a more comprehensive cost that factors in rentals and interest forgone on owned land and fixed capital assets, on top of A2+FL.
• CACP considers both A2+FL and C2 costs while recommending MSP.

Importance of Minimum Support Price

• Fixed Remunerations: The farmers are financially secured against the vagaries of price instability in the market. It provides security to farmers from the risk of crop failure and less production.
• Informed decision making: MSP are announced at the beginning of the sowing season, this helps farmers make informed decisions on the crops they must plant. This advance information helps the farmer to make an informed decision about which crop to sow for maximum economic benefit within the limitations of his farm size, climate and irrigation facilities.
• Diversification of crops: The MSP announced by the Government of India for the first time in 1966-67 for wheat has been extended to around 24 crops at the present. This has encouraged the farmers to grow these diverse crops to maximise their income.
• Benchmark for private buyers: MSP sends a price-signal to market that if merchants don’t offer higher than MSP prices the farmer may not sell them his produce. Thus it acts as an anchor or benchmark for the agro-commodity It ensures the market prices will not be drastically lower than MSP.
• Targeted crops: MSP is used as a tool to incentivize production of specific food crops which is short in supply. MSP motivates farmers to grow targeted crops and increased production.
• Enhance purchasing power: Slow farm growth and increasing farmer’s distress demand for more MSP for farmers. It helps in enhancing the purchasing capacity of farmers.

Issues associated with Minimum Support Price

• Non-proportional increase: The support prices that are being provided do not increase at par with increase in cost of production. A rating agency, CRISIL pointed out that the increase in MSP has indeed fallen during 2014-17.
• Reach: The benefits of this scheme do not reach all farmers and for all crops. Not all farmers have been able to get the benefits of MSP because of lack of awareness. There are many regions of the country like the north-eastern region where the implementation is too weak.
• Excess storage: MSP without sufficient storage has resulted in huge piling of stocks in the warehouses. The stock has now become double the requirements under the schemes of PDS, Buffer stock etc.
• Market distortion: It distorts the free market by favouring some particular crops over other crops.
• Fiscal burden: Open-ended procurement of paddy and wheat at MSPs is completely out of sync with market prices and lead to fiscal burden.
• Impact agricultural exports: Hikes in MSP also adversely affect the exports by making Indian farm goods un-competitive especially when international market prices are lower.
• Ecological problem: MSP leads to non-scientific agricultural practices whereby the soil, water are stressed to an extent of degrading ground water table and salinization of soil.
• Crop diversity: MSP affects the crop diversity of India. With MSP cropping patterns get affected as it leads to production of MSP supported crops as it guarantee returns.

Way Forward

• Agriculture is, perhaps, the only business where there is a high probability of both production and price risks. It may be more worthwhile to consider “how best” to make MSP work for the farmer.
• Public procurement needs to continue for staple cereals, but farmers of non-staple food crops need to be provided with direct income transfers.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 1

Prime Minister reviewed the construction of the National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC) site at Gujarat’s Lothal.

Lothal was not only a major trading centre of the Indus Valley Civilisation, but it was also a symbol of India’s maritime power and prosperity.

Where is Lothal?

• Lothal was one of the southernmost sites of the Indus Valley civilization, located in the Bhāl region of what is now the state of Gujarat. 
• The port city is believed to have been built in 2,200 BC. 
• Lothal was a thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads, gems and ornaments reaching West Asia and Africa. 
• The meaning of Lothal (a combination of Loth and (s) thal) in Gujarati is “the mound of the dead”.
• Incidentally, the name of the city of Mohenjo-daro (also part of the Indus Valley Civilisation, now in Pakistan) means the same in Sindhi.
• Indian archaeologists started the search for cities of the Harappan Civilisation post-1947 in Gujarat’s Saurashtra. 
• Archaeologist SR Rao led the team which discovered a number of Harappan sites at the time, including the port city of Lothal.
• Excavation work was carried out in Lothal between February 1955 and May 1960. 
• According to the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Lothal had the world’s earliest known dock, connecting the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river.
• Additionally, the National Institute of Oceanography in Goa discovered marine microfossils and salt, gypsum crystals at the site, indicating that sea water once filled the structure and it was definitely a dockyard.
• In later excavations, ASI unearthed a mound, a township, a marketplace, and the dock. 
• Adjacent to the excavated areas stands the archaeological site museum, where some of the most prominent collections of Indus-era antiquities in India are displayed.

Heritage Value

• Lothal was nominated in April 2014 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site,. 
• The excavated site of Lothal is the only port-town of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
•  A metropolis with an upper and a lower town had in on its northern side a basin with vertical wall, inlet and outlet channels which has been identified as a tidal dockyard.
• Satellite images show that the river channel, now dried, would have brought in considerable volume of water during high tide, which would have filled the basin and facilitated sailing of boats upstream.
• Its heritage value is comparable to other ancient port-towns around the world – including Xel Ha (Peru), Ostia (Port of Rome) and Carthage (Port of Tunis) in Italy, Hepu in China, Canopus in Egypt, Gabel (Byblos of the Phoenicians), Jaffa in Israel, Ur in Mesopotamia, Hoi An in Vietnam, as per the dossier. In the region, it can be compared with other Indus port towns of Balakot (Pakistan), Khirasa (in Gujarat’s Kutch) and Kuntasi (in Rajkot).

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 2

Recently the union minister for Railways recently launched India’s first all-aluminium freight rail rakes.

Aluminium Freight 

• Lighter than its predecessors, but with more freight-carrying capacity, the Railways’ first indigenously manufactured aluminium goods train rake.
• Made in collaboration with Besco Limited Wagon Division and aluminium major Hindalco, it also has a lower carbon footprint for every 100 kg of weight reduction in wagons.
• The rake was 180 tonnes lighter than existing steel rakes, resulting in increased speed and lower power consumption for the same distance.
• These wagons save 14,500 tonnes of CO2 emissions, have more carrying capacity, consume less energy and are corrosion-resistant.
• They are 100% recyclable and even after 30 years.
• The new rake can carry 180 tonnes extra payload per trip over conventional rakes and being corrosion-resistant, will reduce maintenance costs.

Significance of using Aluminium

• Aluminium trains command a lion’s share in the United States, Europe and Japan.
• This is because of its attributes such as sleek, aerodynamic designs.
• They also have an ability to tilt at high speeds without going off the rails.
• Aluminium is the preferred choice for metro trains worldwide for their durability and most importantly – passenger safety, as it has improved crash worthiness or superior crash absorption capability.
• Indian Railways have already announced their plans to make aluminium bodied Vande Bharat train sets.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

IN-SPACe, the government body for dealing with the private sector space industry, has received 125 proposals from start-ups since last June.

The Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (IN-SPACe) is meant to act as “the agency to promote, handhold and authorise private sector activities in the sector, besides enabling sharing of technical facilities and expertise from ISRO.

IN-SPACe

• IN-SPACe is an independent nodal agency under Department of Space for allowing space activities and usage of DOS owned facilities by NGPEs as well as to prioritise the launch manifest.
• It assesses the needs and demands of private players, including educational and research institutions, and, explore ways to accommodate these requirements in consultation with ISRO. 
• IN-SPACe has been established as a single window nodal agency, with its own cadre, which permits and oversees the following activities:
• Space activities including building of launch vehicles and satellites and providing space based services as per the definition of space activities.
• Sharing of space infrastructure and premises under the control of ISRO with due considerations to on-going activities.
• Establishment of temporary facilities within premises under ISRO control based on safety norms and feasibility assessment.
• IN-SPACe will have a Chairman, technical experts for space activities, Safety experts, experts from Academia and Industries, Legal and Strategic experts from other departments, members from PMO and MEA of Government of India.
• It’s headquarters located at Ahmedabad, Gujarat. 

New Space India Limited

• New Space India Limited (NSIL), incorporated in March 2019 (under the Companies Act, 2013) is a wholly owned Government of India company, under the administrative control of Department of Space (DOS).
• NSIL is the commercial arm of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) with the primary responsibility of enabling Indian industries to take up high technology space related activities and is also responsible for promotion and commercial exploitation of the products and services emanating from the Indian space programme.

Draft National Space Policy 2020

• The Draft National Space Policy 2020 was thus unveiled with the aim to increase public-private partnerships in space research and exploration activities.
• Instead of only partnering on the manufacturing and logistical side of operations earlier, private players were now given access to ISRO’s infrastructure, technical resources and data to grow.

Private startups in Indian Space Industry

• Indian Space Association (ISpA), an association of Indian space companies, said that there were 102 space start-ups in India.
• Several Indian startups have started their operations. Some of the startups include:
• Digantara: It is an Indian private company working to secure long-term space flight safety by developing space debris tracking and monitoring services.
• Bellatrix Aerospace: Headquartered in Bangalore, it is an Indian private aerospace manufacturer and small satellite company.
• Tathya Earth: The company leverages deep learning algorithms for satellite imagery and maritime data to identify important real-time trends in the global economy.
• Skyroot, another Startup founded by two former ISRO scientists. The company is building “Vikram” rockets from scratch, which are the first brand of rockets made by the private sector in India.
• Agnikul Cosmos, a Startup founded by two 21-year-old college students became the world’s first company to successfully test a 3D-sprinted rocket engine, which is a new and upcoming tech in the space industry and is predicted to replace conventional assembly models.
• For the Indian space industry to grow and have many SpaceX-like companies, it has to meet only a key challenge — an assured market. All along the Indian space industry had two players — the government as a provider of demand and ISRO as the supplier of space services— but now, with the private sector getting into both demand and supply, the market is uncertain.

Challenges in the development of the Space Economy

• Budgetary Constraints: The CDS and IIST study noticed a decline in the budget for space-related activities. 
• Lack of Data: The current CDS and IIST paper was a first-time attempt at scientifically measuring the size of the space economy. Further even this was unable to establish the size of the space-based remote sensing industry.
• Space Debris: Since the market is open, more corporations can send their vehicles and satellites up into space, which is already crowded. By some estimates, there are over 15,000 traceable and over 200,000 1-10 cm pieces.
• Absence of a Legislative Framework
• Brain Drain: India produces the best brains of the world but is unable to retain them. People emigrate from the country for better opportunities and careers that might hamper development of the space sector.
• Lack of robust Dispute Settlement Mechanism: This discourages private investment in the space sector e.g., the cancellation of Antrix-Devas deal has impacted investor confidence and hurt India’s reputation as investment destination internationally.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

According to the National Green Tribunal (NGT), green crackers are permitted only in cities and towns where air quality is moderate or poor.

What is the difference between green crackers and traditional crackers?

• Both green crackers and traditional crackers cause pollution and people should refrain from using either. 
• However, the only difference is that green crackers cause 30 per cent less air pollution as compared to traditional ones. “
• Green crackers reduce emissions substantially and absorb dust and don’t contain hazardous elements like barium nitrate. 
• Toxic metals in traditional crackers are replaced with less hazardous compounds. 
• Green crackers are developed by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).
• There is reduction in sound as well in green crackers.

Identification of Green Cracker

• Green crackers fall only in these three categories- SWAS, SAFAL and STAR: the crackers developed by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). “
• SWAS, that is “safe water releaser” should have have a small water pocket/droplets which get released when burst, in the form of vapour.
• “SWAS is safe water releaser, which suppresses the dust released by releasing water vapour in the air. 
• It does not comprise potassium nitrate and sulphur and the particulate dust released will reduce approximately by 30 per cent.
• Similarly, STAR is the safe thermite cracker, which does not comprise potassium nitrate and sulphur, emits reduced particulate matter disposal and reduced sound intensity. 
• SAFAL is safe minimal aluminium which has minimum usage of aluminium, and used magnesium instead. 
• It ensures reduction in sound in comparison to traditional crackers.
• The identification of green crackers can be done through the CSIR NEERI logo. 
• The scanner may be downloaded using the CSIR NEERI green QR code app from Google Playstore.

What are the toxic metals that traditional crackers release?

• Crackers release several toxic metals that can be harmful for health.
• The white color emitted through crackers is aluminium, magnesium and titanium, while the orange colour is carbon or iron. 
• Similarly, yellow agents are sodium compounds while blue and red are copper compounds and strontium carbonates. 
• The green agent is barium mono chloride salts or barium nitrate or barium chlorate.

Damage and harm of these chemicals 

• Lead in crackers impact the nervous system while copper triggers respiratory tract irritation, sodium causes skin issues and magnesium leads to mental fume fever. 
• Cadmium not just causes anemia but also damages the kidney while nitrate is the most harmful that causes mental impairment. 
• The presence of nitrite causes irritation in mucous membrane, eyes and skin. 
• The most vulnerable population though are infants, children, pregnant women, elderly and people with underlying medical conditions. 

Firecrackers made with reduction in size of shell, elimination of ash usage, reduced usage of raw materials, uniform acceptable quality, etc., leading to reduction of particulate matter and gaseous emission is why green crackers are being preferred.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

Addressing the inaugural event of Asia’s largest Compressed Bio Gas (CBG) plant in Lehragaga, Sangrur, Punjab, Union Minister of Petroleum & Natural Gas and Housing & Urban Affairs said that this plant in Sangrur is just the beginning of India’s master plan for a CBG-based rural economy.

• The Compressed Bio Gas (CBG) plant in Sangrur is a step in achieving objectives of the Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) scheme, which was launched by Government of India in October 2018 to establish an ecosystem for production of Compressed Bio Gas (CBG) from various waste/ biomass sources in the country. 
• The scheme aims to empower and unleash the rural economy by supporting farmers, increase India’s domestic energy production and self-sufficiency and also reduce the air pollution, and help India lead the world toward a clean energy transition. 
• Apart from this plant, 38 CBG / Biogas Plants have been commissioned under the SATAT initiative.
• The efforts being made to encourage the indigenous manufacturing of CBG Plant equipment such as Cascades, Compressors & Dispensers.
• The scheme aims to empower and unleash the rural economy by supporting farmers, increase India’s domestic energy production and self-sufficiency and also reduce the air pollution, and help India lead the world toward a clean energy transition.

Compressed Biogas(CBG)

• It is a purified form of biogas.
• It is the mixture of hydrocarbon gases and vapours consisting mainly of Methane in gaseous form.
• It can be produced from waste including municipal solid waste, sludge from wastewater treatment plants, market residues, agricultural residues, cattle dung, sugarcane press mud among others.

Process of Producing CBG: 

CBG from biomass involves a two-pronged approach.

• First Step: Biogas is produced through the anaerobic decomposition of biomass.
• Anaerobic Process: In this process, microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen. The process is used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage waste or to produce fuels.
• Second Step: Biogas contains 55 to 60% methane, 40 to 45% carbon dioxide (CO2) and trace amounts of hydrogen sulphide. The second process involves purifying the gas to remove carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide gases to prepare CBG.

CBG different from Compressed Natural Gas(CNG)

• Chemically, CBG is the same as CNG — both are compressed methane — and have the same calorific value.
• But, CNG is a by-product of petroleum, and CBG can be produced from any biomass, be it crop residue, cattle dung, sugarcane press mud, municipal wet waste, or effluents from a sewage treatment plant.
• Hence, this makes CBG a commercially viable option as it can be directly used to replace CNG in transportation fuel. Just like CNG, CBG too can be transported through cylinders or pipelines to retail outlets.

Syllabus: General Studies Paper 3

The Ministry of Defence (MoD) announced that the indigenous ballistic missile nuclear submarine INS Arihant had successfully launched a nuclear capable Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) in the Bay of Bengal with “very high accuracy”.

The Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs)

• The Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs), sometimes called the ‘K’ family of missiles, have been indigenously developed by Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). 
• The family is codenamed after Dr APJ Abdul Kalam, the centre figure in India’s missile and space programmes who also served as the 11th President of India.
• Because these missiles are to be launched from submarines, they are lighter, more compact and stealthier than their land-based counterparts, the Agni series of missiles which are medium and intercontinental range nuclear capable ballistic assets.
• Part of the K family is the SLBM K-15, which is also called B-05 or Sagarika. It has a range of 750 km. 
• INS Arihant can carry a dozen K-15 missiles on board. 
• India has also developed and successfully tested K-4 missiles from the family, which have a range of 3,500 km.
• It is also reported that more members of K-family reportedly carrying the code names K-5 and K-6, with a range of 5,000 km and 6,000 km respectively are under development.

INS Arihant (the submarine)

• Launched in 2009 and Commissioned in 2016, INS Arihant is India’s first indigenous nuclear powered ballistic missile capable submarine built under the secretive Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) project, which was initiated in the 1990s.
• INS Arihant and its class of submarines are classified as ‘SSBN ’, which is the hull classification symbol for nuclear powered ballistic missile carrying submarines. 
• In November 2019, after INS Arihant completed its first deterrence patrol, the government announced the establishment of India’s “survivable nuclear triad”.
• The second submarine in the Arihant class, SSBN Arighat, is reported to have been launched in 2017, and said to be undergoing sea trials at present. 
• In addition, India operates 15 conventional diesel electric submarines (classified as SSK), and some more are on the way.

The Strategic Significance

• The successful user training launch of the SLBM by INS Arihant is significant to prove crew competency and validate the SSBN programme.
• A robust, survivable and assured retaliatory capability is in keeping with India’s ‘no first use’ commitment.
• These submarines can not only survive a first strike by the adversary, but can also launch a strike in retaliation, thus achieving ‘Credible Nuclear Deterrence’.
• The development of these capabilities is important in the light of India’s relations with China and Pakistan.
• China: The PLA Navy currently operates 6 nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) and 46 diesel-powered attack submarines (SSs).
• Pakistan: It Navy operates 5 diesel-electric submarines and 3 mini submarines of under 150 tonne displacement.

Arihant stressed on the strategic postures of ‘credible minimum deterrence’ and ‘no first use’ which are pivotal to India’s nuclear doctrine, made public in January 2003.

The key points in the doctrine made public at the time were: 

• Building and maintaining a credible minimum deterrent; 
• A posture of ‘no first use’ denoting that the nuclear weapons will only be used in retaliation against a nuclear attack on Indian territory or on Indian forces anywhere; 
• Nuclear retaliation to a first strike will be massive and designed to “inflict unacceptable damage”.