General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recently, Iran’s Foreign Ministry has confirmed that its Parliament is drafting legislation to withdraw from the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) Treaty.

• It comes amid escalating tensions with Israel and renewed scrutiny from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): Background

• It is one of the most widely adhered-to arms control agreements signed in 1968 and entered into force in 1970.
• It was extended indefinitely in 1995.
• Membership Provisions (Two Categories):
  • Nuclear-Weapon States (NWS): These are the five countries that had tested nuclear weapons before January 1, 1967 — United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom.
  • Non-Nuclear-Weapon States (NNWS): All other signatories agree not to pursue nuclear weapons and to accept IAEA safeguards on their nuclear activities.
• NPT established a three-pillar framework:
  • Non-Proliferation: NWS agreed not to transfer nuclear weapons or assist NNWS in acquiring them.
  • Disarmament: All parties committed to pursuing negotiations toward nuclear disarmament.
  • Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy: To access nuclear technology for peaceful purposes under IAEA safeguards.
  • Withdrawal Clause (Article X of NPT): It allows any state to exit if it determines that ‘extraordinary events’ have jeopardized its supreme national interests, provided it gives three months’ notice to other signatories and the UN Security Council (UNSC).

Present Status

• A total of 191 States have joined the Treaty, including the five nuclear-weapon States.
• India, Pakistan, South Sudan and Israel never joined the treaty, however they are known or believed to possess nuclear weapons.
• North Korea joined the NPT in 1985 but withdrew in 2003.

India’s Approach NPT

• India’s position on the Treaty has remained consistent since the treaty’s inception in 1968.
• India’s primary objection lies in the treaty’s division of the world into nuclear ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’.
• India’s refusal to sign was based on ‘enlightened self-interest and considerations of national security’, as highlighted by former Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in Parliament.

India’s Alternative Vision

• India has consistently advocated for a universal, non-discriminatory, and verifiable disarmament regime.
• India has proposed a Nuclear Weapons Convention that would ban the development, production, and use of nuclear weapons globally.
• Voluntary Commitments and Responsible Conduct By India:
  • It maintains a voluntary moratorium on nuclear testing.
  • It adheres to a No First Use (NFU) policy.
• It has implemented stringent export controls and aligned with global regimes like the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) and the Wassenaar Arrangement.
• India’s 2008 Civil Nuclear Agreement with the USA and subsequent waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) further acknowledged its responsible nuclear behavior.

Concerns & Challenges

• Disarmament Stalemate: Critics argue that nuclear-weapon states have not made sufficient progress toward disarmament (Article VI of Treaty), undermining the treaty’s credibility.
• Non-Compliance and Withdrawal: North Korea’s withdrawal and Iran’s contested nuclear activities have tested the treaty’s enforcement mechanisms.
• Technological Dual-Use Dilemma: Peaceful nuclear technology can be diverted for weapons development, raising concerns about proliferation risks.

Future Outlook

• Strengthening Verification: Expanding the IAEA’s role and universalizing the Additional Protocol could enhance transparency and trust.
• Bridging the Disarmament Gap: Renewed commitment by nuclear powers to reduce arsenals is essential to maintain the treaty’s legitimacy.
• Addressing Non-Signatories: Engaging India, Pakistan, and Israel in parallel frameworks may help integrate them into the global non-proliferation regime.
• Preventing Weaponization of New Technologies: The rise of cyber threats and autonomous systems necessitates updated safeguards.
• Preparatory process for the NPT Review Conference (2026), held every five years to assess progress and address emerging threats, is underway.

General Studies Paper -2

Context: Recent tensions between Iran and Israel have led to a spike in global oil prices.

About

• In mid-June 2025, the renewed military flare-up between Iran and Israel sent shockwaves through energy markets.
• The Brent crude futures surged by nearly 9% on June 13 to $75.65 per barrel, peaking at $78.50, a near five-month high.

Reasons for Increase in oil prices

• Vulnerability of the Strait of Hormuz: The Strait of Hormuz connects the Persian Gulf to the Arabian Sea and is the world’s most crucial oil transit chokepoint.
  • In 2024, it facilitated the transport of around 20 million barrels per day, about 20% of global petroleum liquids consumption.
  • Countries such as Saudi Arabia, UAE, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran rely on this route for exports.
  • Closure or disruption, even temporary, raises shipping delays, and energy costs.
• Potential Supply Chain Disruptions: Conflict in the Middle East could also hinder access to the Suez Canal and the Red Sea, affecting alternative maritime routes and leading to logistical and financial challenges for global oil trade.
• Risk Premium: The possibility of a large-scale conflict or blockades results in speculative buying and a risk premium on oil, pushing prices up even before any physical supply disruption occurs.

Implications for India

• Rising Import Costs: India imports over 80% of its crude oil. As the global price increases, it will raise India’s overall import bill.
• Inflationary Pressures: A rise in crude oil prices can spill over into transport, logistics, and manufacturing, causing a rise in retail inflation.
• Economic Growth and Investment: A sustained surge in prices may dent corporate profitability and delay private sector investments, especially in energy-intensive sectors.

Way Ahead

• Accelerate Renewable Energy Transition: Reducing long-term dependence on fossil fuels.
  • Strengthen Strategic Petroleum Reserves to cushion short-term shocks.
• Diversify Energy Sources: Including gas imports, biofuels, and electric mobility.
• Diplomatic Engagements: To support de-escalation and secure oil supply routes.

Concluding Remarks

• The ongoing Iran-Israel tensions have revived global concerns about energy security and price stability.
• For India, the conflict is a reminder of the country’s high vulnerability to external shocks due to its dependence on oil imports.
• While current reserves and diversification strategies offer some resilience, a prolonged conflict could have significant economic and fiscal consequences.

General Studies Paper -3

Context

• The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has released its Global Drought Outlook, highlighting the increasing frequency, and geographical spread of droughts globally.

What is drought?

• Droughts are periods characterised by a significant hydrological imbalance in water sources or reservoirs, typically marked by “drier-than-normal” weather conditions.
• These periods are primarily driven by low rainfall and can be further intensified by high temperatures or strong wind, which accelerate water evaporation, as well as human activities.
• Classification:
  • Meteorological drought refers to a prolonged period of low precipitation.
  • Agricultural (or ecological) drought refers to a condition where soil moisture is insufficient to meet the needs of crops and vegetation.
  • Hydrological drought occurs when surface or groundwater water levels drop below average over a prolonged period.

Key Findings

• The global land area affected by drought doubled between 1900 and 2020, with 40% of the planet experiencing increased drought frequency and intensity in recent decades.
• Since 1980, 37% of global land has experienced significant soil moisture decline. Similarly, groundwater levels are falling globally, with 62% of monitored aquifers in decline.
• Climate change made the 2022 European drought up to 20 times more likely and increased the likelihood of the ongoing drought in North America by 42%.

Causes of Droughts

• Natural Causes:
  • Climate variability, such as El Niño and La Niña, affects global weather patterns and can result in prolonged dry spells in some regions.
  • Reduced snowfall and melting glaciers diminish freshwater sources over time.
• Anthropogenic Causes:
• Deforestation and land degradation reduce the soil’s ability to retain moisture and disturb the local water cycle.
• Urbanisation leads to soil sealing, which prevents water infiltration and groundwater recharge.
• Unsustainable agriculture and over-extraction of groundwater, especially through inefficient irrigation practices, worsen the drought intensity in some areas.

Impacts of Drought

• Environmental Consequences: Droughts severely degrade ecosystems such as forests, wetlands, and grasslands, leading to loss of biodiversity and reduction in plant biomass.
• Economic Consequences: Droughts also impact hydropower production, industrial operations, and fluvial trade, reducing efficiency and increasing energy and food insecurity.
  • The economic costs of droughts are rising globally by 3% to 7.5% annually.
• Social Consequences: They contribute to food insecurity, migration, water scarcity, and livelihood loss, especially among marginal and vulnerable communities.
  • Droughts account for only 6% of natural disasters but cause 34% of all disaster-related deaths.

Key Recommendations

• Investment in Drought Resilience: Every USD 1 invested in drought prevention yields USD 2 to 3 in benefits, with some resilience projects offering up to ten times the return on investment.
• Ecosystem and Land Use Management: Ecosystem restoration improves water retention and soil health. Drought-tolerant crops and adaptive farming help secure food systems.
• Cross-Sectoral Action: Include energy, transport, infrastructure, and urban planning in drought resilience strategies.
• Irrigation efficiency improvements could cut global water use by 76%.

General Studies Paper -3

Context

• Recently, the third United Nations Oceans Conference (UNOC), held in Nice, France, concluded with commitments aimed at safeguarding the planet’s marine ecosystems.

Key Outcomes of the Conference (2025)

• High Seas Treaty Nears Enforcement: Fifty-six of the required sixty countries have ratified the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement (aka High Seas Treaty).
  • It enables the creation of marine protected areas (MPAs) in international waters, regulate marine genetic resources, and mandate environmental impact assessments.
• Voluntary Commitments and Financial Pledges: The European Commission pledged 1 Billion Euro to support ocean conservation and sustainable fishing.
  • French Polynesia announced plans to establish the world’s largest marine protected area, covering its entire exclusive economic zone—about five million square kilometers.
• Global Political Declaration: Over 170 countries adopted the Nice Ocean Action Plan, a political declaration paired with more than 800 voluntary commitments.
  • These range from youth advocacy to deep-sea ecosystem literacy and capacity-building in marine science.
• Pushback Against Deep-Sea Mining: A growing coalition of nations called for a precautionary pause on deep-sea mining, citing its potential to irreversibly damage fragile marine ecosystems.
• India’s Role and Roadmap: India pledged to ratify the High Seas Treaty and proposed a 10-point roadmap for sustainable ocean governance. It includes:
  • Expand Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
  • Scale Up the Blue Economy
  • Reduce Marine Pollution
  • Promote Offshore Renewable Energy
  • Support the Global Plastics Treaty
  • Invest in Ocean Science and Technology
  • Strengthen Coastal Resilience
  • Ensure Equitable Access to Marine Resources
  • Pause Deep-Sea Mining
  • Foster Global Partnerships

About High Seas

• The high seas refer to areas of the ocean that lie beyond the jurisdiction of any single country — specifically, beyond 200 nautical miles (about 370 kilometers) from a nation’s coastline (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea-UNCLOS).
• These waters are considered part of the global commons.
• The high seas make up nearly two-thirds of the ocean’s surface and are vital for regulating Earth’s climate, supporting marine biodiversity, and sustaining global fisheries.

Importance of Oceans

• Climate Regulation: Oceans absorb over 25% of global carbon emissions and generate 50% of the oxygen.
  • They act as Earth’s largest carbon sink and heat buffer, helping stabilize the climate.
• Food Security: Oceans provide 15% of the animal protein consumed globally.
  • In some developing nations, seafood is the primary protein source for over half the population.
• Livelihoods and Economy: More than 3 billion people depend on marine and coastal resources for their livelihoods.
  • The ocean economy is valued at $3–5 trillion annually, supporting industries like fisheries, tourism, and shipping.
• Biodiversity Reservoir: Oceans host an immense variety of life—from coral reefs to deep-sea ecosystems that are essential for ecological balance and future scientific discoveries.

Key Concerns

• Ocean Pollutions: An estimated 75 to 199 million tonnes of plastic. Each year, 8 to 12 million metric tons more are added.
  • Asia largest (81%) contributors of ocean plastic pollution (largely due to inadequate waste management systems).
  • About 92% of microplastics have been found in 60% of fish consumed by humans annually.
  • Five major ocean garbage patches, with the Great Pacific Garbage Patch containing an estimated 1.8 trillion pieces of trash.
  • About 14 million metric tons of ocean garbage rest on the seafloor.
  • By 2050, plastic in the ocean is projected to outweigh all fish if current trends continue.
  • Currently, the ocean’s average pH is 8.1 which is about 30% more acidic than in pre- industrial times.
• Other Concerns:
  • Overfishing, threatening marine species and food chains.
  • Climate change, causing acidification, sea-level rise, and coral bleaching.
  • Deep-sea mining, which risks irreversible damage to fragile ecosystems.

Ocean Conservation Efforts

• Early Foundations (Pre-1970s): International Whaling Commission (1946), one of the first global marine conservation agreements.
  • Institutionalization (1970s–1990s): The US passed the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (1972), and the Law of the Sea Convention (1982) laid the groundwork for international maritime law.
• Scientific & Global Expansion (2000s–2010s):
  • Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): Countries began designating MPAs to safeguard biodiversity. However, only about 2.7% of the oceans were highly protected till 2020.
  • Data-Driven Conservation: Initiatives like MegaMove used satellite tracking to identify critical habitats for marine megafauna, helping shape smarter conservation strategies.
• Modern Era (2020s–Present):
  • High Seas Treaty (2023): It allows for the creation of MPAs in international waters—covering nearly two-thirds of the ocean.
  • 30×30 Goal: At COP15 in 2022, nations committed to protecting 30% of oceans by 2030.
• Indigenous Knowledge Integration: Pacific Islander traditions are increasingly recognized as vital to conservation, blending ancestral wisdom with modern science.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• Two years after a major rupture in ties, India and Canada have agreed to restore the High Commissioners, and discussed restarting talks for a trade agreement, visa services, and other dialogue mechanisms.

About

• The decisions came during Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s talks with Canada’s newly elected Prime Minister Mark Carney on the sidelines of the G7 outreach session.
• The leaders also discussed the importance of restarting the stalled negotiations on the Trade Agreement (EPTA), with a view to paving the way for a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA).
• The two Prime Ministers discussed collaborations in “clean energy, digital transformation, artificial intelligence, LNG, food security, critical minerals, higher education, mobility, and supply chain resilience”.

Background of the Issue

• Khalistani separatist activities in Canada have strained ties; India has repeatedly raised concerns over Canada’s inaction.
• 2023 Diplomatic Row: Relations deteriorated after the Canadian PM alleged Indian involvement in the killing of a Canadian citizen linked to Khalistan extremism.
  • India dismissed the allegations and expelled Canadian diplomats.
  • Talks on trade and economic agreements were suspended due to the diplomatic fallout.

Brief on India-Canada Relations

• Historical Relations: India and Canada established diplomatic relations in 1947.
  • Shared democratic values and Commonwealth membership have underpinned ties.
  • Relations were historically strained after India’s nuclear tests in 1974 and 1998, due to Canada’s non-proliferation stance.
• Economic Cooperation: In 2024 (January – August), total bilateral trade in goods amounted to USD 8.55 billion (India’s exports: USD 5.22 billion and India’s imports: USD 3.33 billion).
  • Negotiations continue on a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) and a Foreign Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement (FIPA).
• Civil Nuclear Cooperation: Nuclear Cooperation Agreement (NCA) signed in 2010, operational since 2013.
  • A Joint Committee oversees implementation of the 2010 Agreement on “Cooperation in Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy”.
• Space Cooperation: MoUs signed in 1996 and 2003 between ISRO and Canadian Space Agency (CSA).
  • Cooperation includes satellite tracking, space astronomy, and commercial satellite launches.
  • ISRO’s commercial arm ANTRIX has launched multiple Canadian nanosatellites.
• Science and Technology: Department of Earth Science and Polar Canada have started a programme for exchange of knowledge and scientific research on Cold Climate (Arctic) Studies.
  • A Memorandum of Cooperation between National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) and POLAR Canada was signed in 2020.
• People-to-People Links: There are around 1.8 million Indo-Canadians and one million non-resident Indians in Canada, making up over 3% of its population.
  • India is the largest source of international students in Canada, with Indians making up around 40% of that group.
  • Strong cultural exchanges and vibrant diaspora influence bilateral perceptions.
• Multilateral Cooperation: Both countries cooperate in forums like the G20, Commonwealth, United Nations, and International Solar Alliance.

Conclusion

• India–Canada relations have strong foundations and significant potential, especially in trade, education, and clean energy. However, bilateral ties remain fragile, with political and security concerns acting as key irritants.
• The future of the relationship depends on how both countries manage these differences while leveraging shared interests.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• Recently, India joined the global community in observing the World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought, reaffirming its commitment to sustainable land management and climate resilience.

About World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought

• It was established by the United Nations General Assembly in 1994, observed annually on June 17.
• It highlights the urgent need for sustainable land management and global action against desertification.
• Theme (2025): ‘Restore the Land. Unlock the Opportunities’

Desertification

• UNCCD (United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification) defines land desertification as “land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities.”
• Land degradation is accelerating, costing the global economy $878 billion annually. Africa and Asia are worst affected, with the Sahel, Middle East, and Central Asia being major hotspots.
• According to ISRO’s Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas (2021), 29.7% of India’s total geographical area (TGA) is undergoing desertification or land degradation.
• The UNCCD was created to address these issues, promoting policies that encourage sustainable land use and resilience against climate change.

Causes of Desertification

• Drought and erratic rainfall: Overgrazing, deforestation, and unsustainable agriculture
• Climate change: Urbanisation and industrialization
• Wind and water erosion: Excessive groundwater withdrawal and poor irrigation practices
• Salinization of soil: Mining and infrastructure development

Impacts of Desertification

• Environmental: Decline in soil fertility, biodiversity, and groundwater recharge.
  • Intensification of climate change via reduced carbon sequestration.
  • Increased frequency of dust storms and sand encroachment.
• Economic: Reduced agricultural productivity and livelihood loss for farmers and pastoralists.
  • Increased rural poverty, food insecurity, and migration pressures.
  • Huge costs on restoration and irrigation infrastructure.
• Social: Distress migration and resource-based conflicts.
  • Erosion of traditional knowledge and indigenous land management systems.
• Geopolitical: Desertification contributes to transboundary tensions over water, land, and food security, particularly in fragile ecosystems like the Sahel or Indo-Gangetic plains.

India’s Efforts

• National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC): National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture and Green India Mission address land degradation.
• National Afforestation Programme: Through the National Mission for a Green India (GIM) and Forest Fire Protection & Management Scheme (FFPM), India supports states in afforestation and forest conservation.
  • Compensatory afforestation under Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) is used to increase forest cover.
• Desert Development Programme (DDP): Targets arid zones with integrated watershed management.
• Mangrove and Coastal Ecosystem Protection: India implements annual Management Action Plans for conserving mangroves and coral reefs across coastal states and UTs under the National Coastal Mission.

International Frameworks

• UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): India has been a party since 1996; hosted COP-14 in 2019 in New Delhi.
• Bonn Challenge: It is a global goal to bring 150 million hectares of degraded and deforested landscapes into restoration by 2020 and 350 million hectares by 2030.
  • India pledged to restore 13 million hectares of degraded land by 2020 and an additional 8 million hectares by 2030.
• 2030 Agenda (SDG 15.3): Committed to achieving Land Degradation Neutrality.

Way Forward

• Integrated Land Use Planning: Align national planning with land capability and agro-climatic zones.
  • Promote multi-cropping, crop rotation, and sustainable grazing systems.
• Community-Led Watershed Management: Empower Panchayats and local communities.
  • Incentivize watershed-based planning and decentralized water harvesting.
• Scientific Monitoring: Use remote sensing, GIS, and AI for real-time tracking of degradation.
  • Strengthen Soil Health Monitoring Networks.
• Sustainable Agriculture: Shift towards organic farming, zero-budget natural farming, and agroforestry.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• Union Environment Minister Bhupender Yadav released the revised Green India Mission (GIM) document for 2021-2030 period.

The National Mission for a Green India

• The National Mission for a Green India (GIM) was launched in 2014 as one of the eight core missions under India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).
• The mission aims to protect, restore, and enhance forest and tree cover in India while addressing the challenges of climate change through both adaptation and mitigation strategies.
• The Green India Mission is being implemented over a 10-year period from 2021 to 2030.
• A portion of the plantation activities has already been completed.
• If the current trend of over 2 million hectares of annual tree plantation continues, it could cover another 12 million hectares between 2025 and 2030.
• Key Objectives and Targets: One of the primary objectives of the mission is to increase forest and tree cover on five million hectares of forest and non-forest land.
  • Additionally, the mission seeks to improve the quality of forest cover on another five million hectares.
  • The mission also contributes to India’s climate commitments by aiming to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent, as part of its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement.

Revised Projections and Area Requirements:

• According to the Forest Survey of India (FSI), if all planned restoration activities are implemented, India could potentially achieve a carbon sink of 3.39 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent.
• To meet this goal, the mission would need to increase forest and tree cover over an estimated 24.7 million hectares of land.
• Micro-Ecosystem Approach in Vulnerable Landscapes: The mission proposes a ‘micro-ecosystem’ approach to address ecological restoration in vulnerable landscapes.
• These landscapes include the Aravallis, Western Ghats, arid regions of Northwest India, mangroves, and the Indian Himalayan Region.
• The approach involves region-specific restoration practices that are tailored to the ecological needs of each area.
• Key Strategies for Implementation: Restoration will be carried out through the recovery of open forests, agroforestry, and plantation on degraded lands.
  • Tree plantations will also be undertaken on wastelands, along railway lines, and national highways to increase green cover.
  • The FSI has identified that the greatest potential for creating additional carbon sinks lies in restoring forests that have been degraded in the last 15 to 20 years.

Mission Governance Structure

• The National Governing Council of the Mission will be chaired by the Union Environment Minister.
• The National Executive Council will be headed by the Secretary, Ministry of Environment.
• The Directorate will be supported by a team of experts and secretarial staff.

Progress Made So Far

• Field-level interventions under the mission began in the year 2015–16.
• By 2020–21, a total of 11.22 million hectares of land had been brought under various plantation and restoration activities.

General Studies Paper-2

Context

• Prime Minister Narendra Modi held productive exchanges with G7 leaders on key global challenges during the G-7 Outreach Summit at Kananaskis in Canada.

About

• This year’s G-7 Outreach Summit, being hosted by Canada, is themed around three core pillars of “protecting our communities around the world”, “building energy security and accelerating the digital transition” and “securing the partnerships of the future”.
• In 2025, G7 partners are marking 50 years of partnership and cooperation.
• This was the Prime Minister’s sixth consecutive participation in the G-7 Summit.
• He addressed a Session on ‘Energy Security: diversification, technology and infrastructure to ensure access and affordability in a changing world’
• Ensuring affordable, reliable and sustainable energy is India’s priority.
• India highlighted the priorities of the Global South.
• Besides the summit, PM Modi is expected to participate in four bilateral meetings with the leaders of Germany, Canada, Ukraine and Italy.

Group of Seven (G7)

• The Group of Seven (G7) is an informal grouping of 7 of the world’s advanced economies and the European Union.
• Its members meet annually at the G7 Summit to discuss global economic and geopolitical issues.
• The G7 was founded in 1975 in response to the oil crisis, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States formed the Group of Six.
• Canada joined in 1976, forming the G7.
• These countries represent about 10% of the world’s population and nearly 30% of the global economy by GDP.
• The European Union has observer status, and is excluded from the rotating chairmanship.
• With the inclusion of Russia in 1998, the group temporarily became the G8.
• In 2014, the group returned to the G7 format.
• Mandate: The topics at the G7 Summit change every year, depending on what’s happening in the world. Some common areas include:
  • International peace and security;
  • Economic growth and inflation;
  • Climate change and energy use;
  • Artificial Intelligence and technology;
  • Health and future pandemic response;
  • Trade policies and supply chains;
• The goal is to find solutions that benefit not just G7 countries, but the entire world.
• The changing agenda and thematic priorities of the G7 are determined by the respective presidency.
• Decisions are usually taken by consensus.

India’s Growing Role At G7 Summits:

• India, though not a formal member of the G7 has been recognised as a powerful and influential global player.
• India has been consistently invited to the G7 Summits as an outreach partner since 2003, reflecting its growing economic and geopolitical significance.
• India has been invited to attend the G7 Summit outreach sessions more than eleven times, and every year since 2019.
• This frequent inclusion underscores India’s role as the world’s fifth-largest economy and a key voice for the Global South in addressing global challenges such as climate change, energy security, and economic development.

Why The G7 Summit is Important?

• Economic Influence: The G7 comprises some of the world’s largest and most advanced economies.
  • Its members collectively represent a significant share of global GDP and trade, giving the group substantial influence over international markets and economic policymaking.
• Global Impact of Decisions: Decisions and commitments made at G7 summits can have far-reaching effects on global trade, financial stability, climate policy, and humanitarian efforts.
• Crisis Coordination Platform: The G7 serves as a critical forum for coordinating international responses to global challenges, such as economic downturns, pandemics, wars, and geopolitical tensions.
• Symbol of Multilateralism: The G7 exemplifies the principles of multilateral cooperation and consensus-building among major powers, reinforcing a rules-based international order.

General Studies Paper-2

Context: Recently, the Prime Minister of India visited Cyprus, marking the first visit by an Indian PM to the country in over 20 years.

Key Highlights of the Visit

• Strategic Roadmap: A five-year strategic roadmap will be developed to steer bilateral cooperation.
  • Alignment between Cyprus Vision 2035 and India’s Viksit Bharat 2047 — both aiming for inclusive, tech-driven, sustainable development.
• Economic & Trade Relations: India-Cyprus-Greece Business & Investment Council launched earlier in 2025.
  • PM Modi emphasized India-EU Free Trade Agreement (FTA) — target: by end of 2025.
• Grand Cross of the Order of Makarios III: PM Modi was awarded Cyprus’ highest civilian honour.
  • Named after Cyprus’ first President, it is awarded to heads of state and leaders of merit.

Historical Linkages

• India and the Republic of Cyprus (RoC) share a long-standing relationship built on friendship, mutual respect, and cooperation, particularly in international forums.
• Diplomatic ties were established in 1962, two years after Cyprus gained independence.
• The bond was rooted in shared ideals championed by leaders like Archbishop Makarios and Jawaharlal Nehru, both pioneers of the Non-Aligned Movement.
• Cyprus is among the top 10 investors in India with cumulative investments of USD 14.65 Billion during April 2000 – March 2025 .

International fora

• They continue to align closely on major global issues and collaborate actively in the UN, Commonwealth, and other platforms.
• India supports a peaceful resolution to the Cyprus issue based on UN Security Council resolutions, international law, and EU principles, advocating for a bi-zonal, bi-communal federation.
• In return, the Republic of Cyprus has been a dependable ally, backing India’s bid for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council and supporting the India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement within the Nuclear Supplier Group (NSG) and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), aiding India’s energy and economic growth.

Economic and Commercial Relations

• India and Cyprus have steadily strengthened their economic and commercial ties, focusing on boosting bilateral trade and investment.
• Key Indian exports to Cyprus include pharmaceuticals, textiles, iron & steel, ceramics, machinery, and chemicals, while Cyprus exports pharmaceuticals, beverages, and manufactured goods to India.
• Despite the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, bilateral trade in 2023–24 reached USD 137 million.

Defence Ties

• India and the Republic of Cyprus have strengthened their defence cooperation through key agreements.
• An MoU on Defence Cooperation was signed in December 2022 during the Indian External Affairs Minister’s visit to Cyprus, followed by the signing of the Bilateral Defence Cooperation Programme (BDCP) for 2025 in January 2025.

Culture

• India and Cyprus share strong cultural ties rooted in shared values and traditions. A Cultural Cooperation Agreement was signed in 1980, and both nations regularly exchange cultural groups and host events like National Days and International Day of Yoga in Cyprus.
• Symbolizing mutual respect, India named an avenue in New Delhi after Archbishop Makarios, the first President of Cyprus.

Importance

• Cyprus is considered a strong and dependable ally of India, supporting its bid for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council and backing the India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement.
• Strategically, Cyprus is vital to India as part of the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) and will hold the EU Council Presidency in 2026, enhancing its importance in India’s efforts to strengthen trade and security ties with Europe.
• Cyprus has long-standing tensions with Turkey (a vocal ally of Pakistan). India’s deepening Cyprus ties subtly counterbalance Turkish lobbying against India at the OIC and UN.

General Studies Paper-3

Context

• The Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) recently examined community seed banks (CSBs) across India and raised concerns over declining intergenerational transfer of traditional seed conservation knowledge.
• Importance of Traditional Seed Conservation
• Genetic Diversity: These seeds have a broad genetic base, making crops naturally resilient to pests and diseases.
• Unlike monocultures that suffer rapid disease spread, traditional polycultures buffer such risks.
• Climate Resilience: With erratic weather becoming the norm—ranging from cloudbursts to droughts—traditional seeds provide insurance. In mixed cropping systems, even if some varieties fail, others survive and yield well.
• Sustainability: Open-pollinated and reusable, these seeds thrive under organic farming methods, unlike commercial hybrid seeds that demand chemical inputs and must be bought each season.

Challenges in Seed Conservation

• Declining Youth Engagement: Young farmers increasingly prefer hybrid or genetically modified (GM) seeds, lured by perceptions of higher yield.
• Lack of Support for CSBs: Most community seed banks (CSBs) operate with minimal funding, largely run by NGOs or self-help groups.
  • Government schemes often exclude them, offering no formal recognition or incentives.
• Erosion of Cultural Practices: Familial transmission of agricultural knowledge has weakened over generations.
  • Traditional seed-saving customs, like Rotiyaana in Uttarakhand, are vanishing.
• Policy Gaps and Exploitation of Farmers’ Rights: Despite laws like the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act (PPVFRA), documentation of “common knowledge” seed varieties remains poor.
  • This vacuum allows individuals to register age-old community varieties as private property, risking biopiracy.

Preservation Practices on the Ground

• Odisha’s Niyamgiri Foothills: Farmers sow diverse millets, vegetables, and herbs like tulsi and marigold, ensuring ecological balance.
• Barah Anaj System, Uttarakhand: Revived by the Beej Bachao Andolan, it promotes the cultivation of 12 traditional crops together.
• Teeratha Village, Karnataka: Youth are involved in Participatory Variety Selection (PVS) through the Sahaja Samrudha CSB network, testing and selecting the most suitable millet varieties in “diversity blocks”.
• Chizami, Nagaland: A women-led CSB not only conserves seeds but also imparts hands-on training to youth and school students on traditional farming and storage.
  • In many regions women play a central role in storing seeds in mud pots or bamboo baskets with neem leaves, ensuring viability without chemicals.
  • The Bharat Beej Swaraj Manch (BBSM), established in 2014, has revitalised seed-saving through community-led festivals in Mumbai, Pune, Kolkata, and Hyderabad—highlighting seed sovereignty as a people’s movement.

Way Ahead

• Policy Integration and Legal Protection: Fast-track documentation of common knowledge varieties to prevent unjust privatisation.
• Incentivising Young Seed Savers: Offer awards, training, and financial support to youth engaged in seed conservation.
  • Integrate seed-saving in school curricula and rural skill programmes.
• Promoting Decentralised Diversity: Encourage in-situ seed preservation in forests and farms.
  • Cluster-level CSBs (one per 100–200 villages) can ensure localised seed sovereignty.
• Cultural Revitalisation: Leverage festivals, folklore, and family traditions to connect youth with their agrarian heritage.

Concluding remarks

• Traditional seed conservation is not just about biodiversity, it is about ecological security, food sovereignty, and cultural continuity.
• With the right mix of policy, public support, and intergenerational collaboration, India’s seed saviours can help us build a more resilient agricultural future.