General Studies Paper 3

Context

• The Digital India Programme had three main vision areas:
• Connectivity,
• Software and services on demand and
• Digital empowerment of citizens.
• Fortunately, the connectivity landscape has been transformed in the last seven years due to multiple factors like the boom in mobile telephony, 4G coverage, significant reduction in tariffs and increased smartphone penetration.

Recent rise in digitisation across different sector and concern

• Along with significant rise in digital connectivity and technologies, government’s enabling policies like Net Neutrality and focus on building Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI), particularly Digital ID and UPI, have further contributed to the Digital India vision, resulting in a massive increase in digital transactions.
• However, this growth has also been accompanied by a huge surge in demand for data.
• Today, India’s per capita data consumption stands at a whopping 19.5 GB per month and the total data volume transported by mobile networks is more than the mobile networks of US and China combined
• Thus, the gap between demand and affordable supply still remains quite wide, especially for poor households and rural India.

Government’s initiatives to promote digital data availability (PM-WANI)

• The creation of inter-operable public Wi-Fi hotspots was one such idea proposed by TRAI in which would foster a shared infrastructure as a last-mile distribution of broadband in sachet-sized packages of Rs 5-10.
• The idea was successfully piloted and submitted to the Department of Telecom (DOT) as Wi-Fi Access Network Interface (WANI), in March 2017.
• As a result, government launched PM-WANI scheme. In this No licence or permit was needed for operations to start.
• Start-ups who had participated in the initial pilot started work. Then Covid brought everything to a grinding halt. Now, the operators, called Public Data Office Aggregators (PDOAs), have started work again.
• It has been a game changer as In the last year alone, more than 1.5 lakh Wi-Fi hotspot have been installed by Public Data Office Aggregators (PDOAs) and more than a million people are getting unlimited internet daily by paying just Rs 5-10.

PM-WANI is gong to strengthen the India’s digital infrastructure

• By introducing various entities such as PDO, PDOA, app providers, and a central registry, an open and scalable framework has been created.
• In the way UPI transformed the financial space in India, PM WANI is going to become a unique Digital Public Infrastructure in connectivity.
• This framework offers a compelling business opportunity for aggregators as it allows unbundling of internet distribution at the last mile, eliminating the need for additional licensing fees.
• It provides a robust foundation for delivering affordable internet access to a significant portion of society. Currently, India’s home broadband penetration is one of the lowest in the world.
• PM-WANI presents a golden opportunity to accelerate high-speed unlimited internet penetration, bridging the digital divide and empowering communities nationwide.
• Moreover, many large Internet Service Providers are hesitant to enter underserved areas. This presents a golden opportunity for the PM-WANI framework to flourish. It also benefits ISPs and Telcos as they end up selling more bandwidth by making their end customers retailers.
• Therefore, by creating a win-win situation for all key stakeholders, PM-WANI also nurtures the growth of local nano entrepreneurs. These last-mile providers, found in small shops, local establishments, and even households, augment their monthly earnings while promoting internet usage.

Conclusion

Therefore, PM-WANI needs to be promoted by all stakeholders. It is uniquely Indian in its approach of interoperability, openness, and scalability. Hopefully, it will accelerate like UPI and the other DPIs being built in our country.

General Studies Paper 2

Context

• Historically, India has been the pivot of connectivity from ancient Red Sea route, Rome to Indian Ocean and Punjab that was significant from socio-culture, economic and connectivity point of view.
• And , recently, On September 10 in New Delhi, the Prime Minister of India, President of the United States, Chancellor of Germany, Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia, President of UAE, Prime Minister of Italy, and the President of the EU unanimously agreed to establish the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC).

About India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) and its

• The IMEC will be a route in the historic sense of the word (with the geopolitical and economic significance that entails), providing transport connectivity to accelerate the development and integration of Asia, the Arabian Gulf, and Europe as a new locus of global power.
• MEC is envisioned two corridors
• An eastern corridor linking India to the Arabian Gulf and a northern corridor linking the Arabian Gulf to Europe. Both ends have robust port, rail, and road infrastructure.
• India, whose connectivity infrastructure has helped it become the world’s fastest-growing major economy, has a massive, well-integrated railroad network, mega ports, and highways on the eastern end of IMEC.
• Mega infra projects for augmenting capacities — dedicated rail freight corridors, highways, expressways and ports — are at various stages of development.
• On the western end of IMEC, beyond Haifa, the sea route across the Mediterranean is also a well-charted path to Greece, Italy, France, and Spain, and well served by hinterland connectivity to Europe by rail and roads.

Importance of IMEC

• Promote better connectivity: It envisions a reliable, cost-effective railway and ship-to-rail transit network to supplement maritime and road routes, enabling goods and services to move between India, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Israel and the EU. IMEC is India’s moment.
• Development and employment generation in the region due to infrastructure development.
• It will also be the cornerstone of economic progress across the region by supercharging regional trade, and connecting Asia with Europe through a region that has never, since the ancient Red Sea route, been considered for such connectivity despite its game-changing potential in terms of shorter transits, accessibility, and multimodal connectivity.
• It will save time compare to existing one route:
• The maritime corridor between Asia and Europe currently remains rooted in the saturated Suez Canal and Mediterranean shipping routes despite being longer and involving additional logistics costs.
• It takes 11 days to sail from JNPT in Maharashtra to Suez port, and six days to Dammam. An additional 24-hour transit by railway could land consignments at Haifa, saving three to four days of transit.
• It will strengthen the supply chain among the partner nations.
• IMEC, which promises shorter routes. It links major ports of western India including JNPT, Kochi, Kandla and Mundra with major shipping ports of the Gulf, including Jebel Ali, Fujairah, Ras Al-Khair, Dammam, Duqm, and Salalah
• It will help in countering the China’s hegemony of Belt and Road Initiative in the Asia and European region.

Way forward

• As commitment of resources from stakeholders and multinational financial institutions like the World Bank will not be an issue as the financial returns on investments promise to be high.
• The green and sustainable growth corridor will envisage the laying of cables for electricity and a pipeline for transporting clean hydrogen. The greening of this project will contribute to the global effort to lower greenhouse gas emissions.
• IMEC has incredible potential to integrate India, West Asia, and Europe on a collective path to growth at an unprecedented scale.
• And it is a historic moment for India as a regional leader that can bring up an entire regional economy through the combination of its technical leadership and outward-looking approach.
• As the next step, a working group of experts from the railway sector, ports and shipping, and communications needs to develop a plan of action to address physical and non-physical barriers, design, financing, legal and other regulatory requirements.

Conclusion

• A mega global initiative like IMEC is only the beginning. As a strategic catalyst for a new way of thinking about collective growth, globalisation, and connectivity — Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam in the truest sense , this new corridor will trigger regional and global cooperation initiatives for socio-economic development across continents, benefitting millions.

General Studies Paper 3

Context

• On July 7, the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) invited responses to a consultation paper it released on a regulatory mechanism for over-the-top (OTT) communication services. The paper also mentions selective banning of these services.

The underlying issue

• The discussion on the selective banning of OTT services came after a Parliamentary Standing Committee issued a notice to the Department of Telecom (DoT) to explore this option due to the unrest caused by these platforms which have mass reach and impact.
• It is important to note that only OTT communication services like WhatsApp, Signal, Meta, Google Meet, Zoom, X, etc. were discussed in the consultation paper and not the ‘content’ OTTs such as Netflix, Amazon Prime etc.
• Content regulation is an altogether different subject and it comes under the ambit of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (MIB) and not the TRAI.
• The TRAI has also asked stake holders to define OTT, and a proposal on cost-sharing mechanisms between Telecom Service Providers (TSPs) and OTT services.

The conflict between TSPs and OTTs

• Telecom Service Providers are of the opinion that OTTs should be regulated and charged because they use and thrive on the infrastructure built by operators over the years. Currently, they aren’t.
• OTT communications services have led to erosion of revenues for the telcos.
• These platforms offer users an array of services, sending of Multimedia Messaging Services (MMS), instant messaging to voice and video calls, delivered over the internet.
• This circumvents the need for traditional telecom services, particularly voice calls and text messages, leading to a significant reduction in the revenue streams of telecom companies.
• OTT communication service providers neither contribute to the exchequer nor make investments like the TSPs in spread of network infrastructure in the country.
• The OTT communication service providers take a free ride on TSP funded networks without contributing to the setting up and maintaining digital infrastructure for access networks.

The demand

• There should be a policy framework to enable fair share contribution from large OTT service providers to telecommunication network operators based on assessable criteria like number of subscribers or data usage.
• To ensure fairness and compensate for the increased data demands, it is justifiable for OTTs to pay a fair and reasonable fair share charge to TSPs.
• The funds received by TSPs from OTTs will support the expansion of networks and enhance contribution to the exchequer, the COAI added.
• That is, all such OTT services should be governed by the same set of rules irrespective of whether they are provided by an operator on its own network or through the internet.

The argument for banning OTT services

• OTTs obtain the location of the customers and can easily bar access.
• Once the OTT communication services are under license this barring will be much easier to implement.
• TSP’s networks are capable of selectively blocking the OTT subject to details like IP addresses provided by the Competent Authority.
• Government should consider source-level blocking so that the desired outcome may be achieved without any significant difficulties.

Way forward

• OTT providers should implement IT solutions that would allow them to swiftly suspend their services in case of an internet outage.

General Studies Paper 2

Context

• The 18th G-20 Summit produced the ‘New Delhi Leaders’ Declaration’. Now it is time to evaluate the declaration and assess its value on the three-fold yardstick of consensus.

Driving philosophy

• Six paragraphs of the ‘Preamble’ and the last paragraph of the ‘Conclusion’ reveal the goals and driving motivations of the G-20 leaders.
• “We are One Earth, One Family, and we share One Future”, they noted.
• The notion of unity and a shared destiny was aptly stressed to covey the gravity of the multiple challenges facing humankind today.
• The way out for the world is to be driven by the “the philosophy of living in harmony with our surrounding ecosystem.”
• They worked on harmonising development with environment, stating that no country should have to choose between fighting poverty and fighting for our planet.
• Paragraph 5 lists 12 goals to which the members are fully committed. These range from securing inclusive growth and accelerating full implementation of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda to addressing debt vulnerability, reform of Multilateral Development Banks, and integrating the perspectives of the Global South into the “future G-20 agenda.”
• The document’s last paragraph reiterates the determination “to steer the world out of its current challenges” and build a bright future. That this will be a long-term project was evident.
• Eight paragraphs were devoted to defining the grouping’s view of what the preceding ministerial meetings had called “geopolitical issues.”
• A fine balance was struck between the Russian red line and the insistence by G7 on ensuring respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty or political independence.
• This middle path, crafted by Indian negotiators, with the valuable help from other countries’ diplomats, was seen as the only way to save the summit.
• The first-ever expansion of G-20 membership was imbued with much significance.
• The document depicts the AU as a permanent member even though G-20 does not have permanent and non-permanent members; it has only members and guests.
• G-20’s central agenda relating to economic and financial sectors, climate action and energy transitions, implementation of SDGs, technological transformation through Digital Public Infrastructure, reform of international financial institutions, trade, and taxation, and securing gender equality and empowerment of “all” women and girls is wide-ranging, ambitious, and even aspirational.

Reinvigorating multilateralism

• Paragraph 47 propounds the view that global challenges of the 21st century can only be addressed through reinvigorated multilateralism, reforms and international cooperation.
• It wants the UN institutions to be more responsive to the entire membership. The need to make the global governance more representative, effective, transparent and accountable has been stated clearly.
• The fact that these formulations have the support of the entire G-20 leadership creates a glimmer of hope of some progress in the future, even though realism demands that the proponents of reform to remain cautious.

Way forward

• On the CAI yardstick, it is obvious that the declaration is not only backed by “100%” consensus, but it also breaks new grounds and records progress in terms of concepts, goals, and objectives, as compared to the Bali Declaration.
• Meanwhile, there should be no hesitation in recognising that the summit has been a major political and diplomatic success for G-20 and its current president, India.

General Studies Paper 2

Context

Indo-Pacific

• The Indo-Pacific is a geopolitical construct that has emerged as a substitute to the long-prevalent “Asia-Pacific.
• Indian ocean and pacific ocean: It is an integrated theater that combines the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, and the land masses that surround them.
• Strategic and economic: It is both a strategic as well as an economic domain comprising important sea-lines of communication
• Maritime security: The Indo-Pacific is also associated with maritime security and cooperation.
• US: It describe the Indo-Pacific as a region that starts at the:
• Western shore of the Americas and ends at the shores of the Indian subcontinent.
• India and Japan: the concept is much broader in expanse, extending to the shores of the African continent.
• Major stakeholders in the Indo-Pacific include: India, U.S.A., Australia, Japan, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) members and other maritime nations that occupy the strategic positions in the Indian and Pacific Ocean including small island countries.

Significance of Indo-Pacific region for India:

• Strategic significance: The Indo-Pacific is a multipolar region that accounts for over half of global GDP and population.
• Mineral Resources: Maritime regions have also become important storage areas for essential resources such as fish stocks, minerals, and offshore oil and gas.
• Economic Growth: The Indo-Pacific area accounts for approximately 60% of world GDP, making it the most important contributor to global growth.
• Commerce: Many of the world’s most important choke points for global trade are located in this region, including the Straits of Malacca, which are crucial for global economic growth.

The significance of the Camp David meet

• It is the function of a recognition of the changing regional security environment by the three countries.
• It along with AUKUS (the U.S, the United Kingdom, Australia), the Quad or CHIP 4 Alliance (the U.S., Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea) lead to a strengthened U.S.-led alliance structure
• though dispersed to reflect the multipolar urges of the contemporary international system — in East Asia.
• The summit has the potential to set South Korea on a new strategic direction in the Indo-Pacific with improved relations with Tokyo
• More synergy with the American view on China, and enhanced engagement of the Indo-Pacific.
• It marks a strategic shift in Seoul’s traditional approach of not offending China at any cost.
• It indicates the view that trade dependence on China does not mean passivity towards a growing Chinese military presence in the region.
• A keen desire in ROK to join the Quad grouping: South Korea might apply for a membership in a Quad Plus next year.
• A new foreign policy enthusiasm in Seoul today: The President of South Korea has declared that the main goal of his foreign policy would be to make South Korea a “global pivotal state”.
• The country’s engagement of the U.S. and Japan, support to Ukraine, articulation of the China challenge and a desire to play a bigger role in the Indo-Pacific underline this new vision.

Reasons why ROK is a natural partner for India in the Indo-Pacific:

• ROK’s location in the Indo-Pacific, close to China, while being a U.S. ally provides India with a like-minded strategic partner.
• For both ROK and India, the rise of China and its unilateral attempts at reordering the Asian security architecture are of great concern.
• For India, Seoul can be an important regional partner at a time when India is closer to the U.S. and is concerned about Chinese intentions and power like never before in history.

Areas where the two countries could focus on in order to strengthen relationship:

• At the political and diplomatic levels: The two sides should consider establishing an annual summit at the level of the Foreign Ministers, and a 2+2 format dialogue (India currently has 2+2 dialogues with the U.S., Japan, Australia and Russia).
• The partnership could also benefit from reciprocal visits by heads of state to each other’s country.
• The two sides could be even more ambitious and explore the possibility of negotiating a South Korea-Japan-India-U.S. initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET), along the lines of the recently-concluded India-U.S. iCET.
• Defense: South Korea’s willingness and ability to cater to India’s defense needs within the ambit of India’s ‘Make in India’ programme must be utilized.
• The K9 Vajra: A 155 mm self-propelled howitzer, built by L&T with technology from South Korea’s Hanwha Defense is an example in this regard.
• South Korean-built K2 Black Panther tanks could also be co-produced in India for the Indian Army or third countries.

Way Forward

• Along with Japan and the U.S, ROK has the potential to emerge as a key piece in India’s Indo-pacific strategy.
• It is important to view the prospects of the India-ROK strategic partnership in the broader context of the recent geopolitical developments in the East Asian region.
• Korean-built civilian nuclear reactors. Even after the India-U.S. civil nuclear deal, India-International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards agreement and the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) waiver
• India has not been able to import any nuclear reactors due to the difficulties foreign suppliers have with India’s nuclear liability law.
• Given India’s growing need for clean energy and Seoul’s remarkable track record in supplying cheaper and faster nuclear reactors to the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and central European states
• India could consider purchasing Korean-built reactors so as to expand the share of nuclear energy in the country’s energy basket —
• ROK, with a new strategic outlook, and along with the U.S., Japan and Australia, is uniquely placed to help India advance its interests in the Indo-Pacific.

General Studies Paper 3

Context

Chandrayaan-3 Mission

• Chandrayaan-3 is India’s third lunar mission and second attempt at achieving a soft landing on the moon’s surface.
• The mission took off from the Satish Dhawan Space Center (SDSC) in Sriharikota on July 14, 2023, at 2:35 pm.
• It consists of an indigenous Lander module (LM), Propulsion module (PM) and a Rover
• objective: developing and demonstrating new technologies required for Interplanetary missions.
• Mission Objectives of Chandrayaan-3:
• To demonstrate Safe and Soft Landing on Lunar Surface
• To demonstrate Rover roving on the moon
• To conduct in-situ scientific experiments.

Recent Achievements by India:

• India is a signatory to the US Artemis Accords: A non-binding arrangement with NASA
• It explores the implementation of provisions of the Outer Space Treaty, 1967 and other international instruments.
• It establishes a political understanding regarding mutually beneficial practices for future use of outer space.
• The deepening of US-India engagements, particularly iCET — establishment of the US-India Civil Space and Commercial Space Working Groups

Global common:

• It is used to define those parts of the planet that fall outside the sovereignty of any state.
• It is a concept built upon the legacy of Grotius’s idea of mare liberum (free sea)
• The term is used to describe supra-national and global resource domains in which common-pool resources are found.
• The UN identifies four “global commons”, namely
• High seas
• Atmosphere
• Antarctica
• Outer space.

How is global common seen?

• When rooted in geopolitical or military relevance, it is generally viewed as an enabling concept.
• Security establishments across the world recognise domains beyond the national jurisdictions, including
• high seas
• air space outside territorial bodies of a state
• outer space
• Others recognise outer space as a vital operational domain for keeping their nation safe while upholding international law.
• Global common” is viewed as a constraining concept based on the economic and commercial implications of shared resources
• It can be overused by some at the expense of others, regardless of national jurisdiction. “
• Commons” is seen as constraining because it is associated with notions of shared ownership, public governance or limitations on use.

Common heritage of mankind” (CHM):

• “Commons” is associated with the “common heritage of mankind” (CHM) concept as expressed in Article 11(3) Moon Agreement, 1979.
• CHM created a territorial status in which the Moon and celestial bodies are themselves not subject to national appropriation
• The fruits and resources of which are also deemed to be the property of mankind at large.
• CHM is not limited to outer space.

Agreements and disagreements:

• The Moon Agreement: This principle was codified as Article 136 of the United Convention on Law of the Seas, 1982.
• To some, the high seas beyond territorial waters is a “global common” allowing freedom of navigation and access to all (an enabling concept)
• Others refer to the deep sea bed as a “global common” (in a constraining sense).
• Sputnik launch in 1957: The US and the USSR ensured the adoption of UN General Assembly Resolutions 1721 A&B (XVI).

Way Forward

• Outer space is a democratized domain: Over 80 countries access outer space
• They derive benefits from space-based satellite services for every aspect of their national life
• India is at a threshold it has never reached before: This would be the time to play a significant part in determining the content and contours of a future international framework for the management of space resources.
• India must necessarily involve a close examination of the Moon Agreement 1979 (MA) which came into force in 1984.
• 18 states have ratified the MA (reduced to 17 after Saudi Arabia’s withdrawal comes into effect).
• Australia and Mexico have ratified MA and are signatories to the Artemis Accords.
• France and India are signatories to MA (not yet ratified) and also to the Artemis Accords.
• It will require a comprehensive understanding of the range of directly and indirectly applicable international law and other frameworks.
• It will require the participation of all government institutions.
• India has had and continues to have robust international cooperation space programmes, including multilateral and bilateral engagements with advanced space powers, and with those looking forward to advancing theirs.
• India must now contribute towards drawing up an international space resource management framework that balances competing objectives in pursuit of the use of outer space for peaceful purposes.
• India’s modest entry into the First Space Age followed by its many gains should be used to help the country tap the vast potential in the Second Space Age.

General Studies Paper 2

Context

Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs):

• The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, were adopted by the United Nations in 2015.
• A universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that by 2030 all people enjoy peace and prosperity.
• It is a set of 17 SDGs which recognize that action in one area will affect outcomes in others and that development must balance social, economic, and environmental sustainability.
• Countries have committed to prioritizing progress for those who are furthest behind.
• The SDGs are designed to end poverty, hunger, AIDS, and discrimination against women.
• The SDGs framework sets targets for 231 unique indicators across 17 SDG goals related to economic development, social welfare and environmental sustainability, to be met by 2030.
• The United Nations adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: It consists of 17 Goals and 169 targets as a plan of action for ‘people’, ‘the planet’, and ‘prosperity’.
• The resolution specifies mechanisms for the monitoring, review, and reporting of progress as a measure of accountability towards the people.
• Member-states submit a Voluntary National Review (VNR) to the UN’s High Level Political Forum (HLPF)
• VLRs is a means for driving and reporting local implementation of SDGs at the sub-national and city levels.

Effects of climate change:

• They vary according to
• location
• socioeconomic status
• gender

Role of women and Impact of climate change on women:

• Women across the world face severe risks to their health, safety, and quality of life.
• Women in developing and less developed countries (especially in low-income areas) are more vulnerable to climate change.
• because of their dependence on natural resources and labour-intensive work for their livelihood.
• Women are more likely to live in poverty than men, which is just one of several social, economic, and cultural variables that makes them more susceptible to the effects of climate change.
• Women from low-income households are more at risk because they are more responsible for food, water, and other homely unpaid work.
• Due to the climate crisis, more time and effort are needed to obtain basic necessities.
• Rural women often shoulder the burden of ensuring access to clean water, adequate cooking fuel, and nutritious food for their families.
• Women may be at increased risk for health and safety because they must travel long distances every day to collect water and fuel.
• Women in low-income countries (predominantly South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa) engage in climate-vulnerable occupations such as farming and other labour-intensive work.
• According to the ILO: 60% of working women in southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa are still in agriculture, where they are often underpaid and overworked.
• Women own only about 10% of the land used for farming.
• A McAllister (2023) study has highlighted that there could be 2(one point two)billion climate refugees by 2050.
• According to a UN study, most (80%) of those displaced by climate-related disasters are women and girls.
• Women, especially those from vulnerable communities, face particular difficulties during and after natural disasters.
• When women are uprooted, they are more susceptible to prejudice and exploitation.
• For instance, after the earthquake in Nepal in 2015, the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) found women were more exposed to trafficking and exploitation.
• Gender-specific issues women face:
• Separation from social networks(higher risk of gender-based violence
• Decreased access to employment, education, and essential health services, such as sexual and reproductive health care and psychosocial support.
• Women make up a large portion of the agricultural workforce in emerging countries: Climate change impacts agricultural productivity negatively and significantly.
• Heat stress affects workers a lot in this sector, especially in South Asia and Africa.
• Women engaged in agriculture do not have access to quality inputs and possess low education and technical knowledge.
• Women farmers and labourers are vulnerable and seriously impacted.
• Various studies reflect how flooding has increased water scarcity and also violence against and the exploitation of women.

Best Practices for the effective involvement of women in climate change plans:

• Charlot Magayi is assisting Kenyan women in switching from filthy cook burners to clean ones.
• In addition to enhancing community health outcomes, this lowers greenhouse gas emissions.
• An African programme run by women called Solar Sister assists localities in creating small-scale solar systems so they can become energy independent.
• These grids also lower greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution.
• In laboratories and research departments all over Africa, female scientists are bridging gender gaps by contributing first-hand knowledge of local conditions and agriculture.
• Gender and Climate Change Development Programme(Programme in South Asia): which aims to increase women’s influence in policy making by providing them with a stronger voice.
• In India, the Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) teaches women farmers how to respond to shifting climate patterns to support themselves better financially.

Way Forward

• Investments in women’s education, training, and access to resources are essential if we are to be resilient to the impact of climate change.
• Reduce the negative impacts of climate change on people’s living standards by
• Teaching them how to practice sustainable agriculture, water management, and energy generation.
• For example, in India, the Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) teaches women farmers how to respond to shifting climate patterns to support themselves better financially.
• It is essential to support groups that educate the public, train people to adapt to climate change and invest in women’s education and training in environmentally-friendly farming methods.
• Women’s participation in climate policy decision-making at all levels is crucial for effective climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies as well as getting decent employment.
• As women face greater risks in climate change, gender parity in decision-making bodies is essential.
• Gender and Climate Change Development Programme(Programme in South Asia): which aims to increase women’s influence in policy making by providing them with a stronger voice.
• Globally, similar efforts are required for efficient climate change adaptation and mitigation.
• Developing and emerging countries urgently need women-led climate action.

General Studies Paper 2

Context

Uniform Civil Code:

• It provides for one law for the entire country, applicable to all religious communities in their personal matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, adoption etc.
• Article 44: It lays down that the state shall endeavour to secure a UCC for the citizens throughout the territory of India.

A UCC and guardian:

• The Guardians and Wards Act, 1890 considers the welfare of the child as the prime consideration in the determination of custody.
• Section 6 of the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956 declares the father as the natural guardian and ‘after him’ the mother;
• The mother would ordinarily have custody till the child attains five years of age.
• The person would lose custody if she/he ceases to be Hindu.
• In Githa Hariharan (1999), the SC held that the expression ‘after him’ does not necessarily mean ‘after life-time’ of the father but, instead, ‘in the absence of’.

Child custody under Islamic laws:

• Custody under Islamic law is the right of the child and not of the parents.
• The father is at number six in terms of the right to custody after the mother, mother’s mother howsoever high, paternal grandmother, sister, maternal aunt and paternal aunt.
• Under the Hanafi school, the mother does not lose custody after she ceases to be a Muslim.
• Islamic law gave custody to the mother till a boy attains seven years and a daughter till she is 17, under the Hanafi school.
• The Shafii and Hanbali schools gave custody to the mother till a daughter is married.
• Under the Maliki school, the mother gets custody of even a male child till puberty and female child till her marriage.

Case studies(about children Custody):

Bombay High Court

• The custody of a child who had already been adopted to be given to the biological father (he is accused of rape which resulted in this child being born).
• Later the 17-year-old biological mother realized that she was pregnant
• Based on a complaint by the minor mother’s father — under the
• The biological father was arrested but was granted bail later.
• The mother and child were sent to a home in Mumbai.
• In 2022, the biological mother got married to another person
• In the larger interests of the child, surrendered the boy to the Child Welfare Committee (CWC) for adoption.
• The child, under Section 38(3) of the Juvenile Justice (JJ) Act, being an unwanted child of a victim of sexual assault, was declared free for adoption by the CWS.
• He was handed over to his adoptive
• On the biological father’s habeas corpus petition, the High Court stayed the adoption proceedings and child was returned to the shelter home.
• The CWC rejected the biological father’s application for custody on the ground that:
• A biological father cannot take advantage of his own crime and giving custody to him would not be in the best interests of the child.
• The High Court handed over custody of the child to the biological father without hearing the biological mother.
• The mother was opposed to giving the child to the biological father.

Implication:

• The requirement of consent of the rapist father in such adoptions would set the wrong precedent.
• The Bombay High Court ignored that the adoption was not valid in terms of Muslim law.
• The court in the interests of the child had refused to give custody to the biological parents as the adoptive parents were given a five-day-old child
• It was only because of their care that the child recovered from jaundice.

Allahabad High Court:(Nasrin Begum (2022):

• A two-judge Bench of the Allahabad High Court gave the custody of a girl child to her biological parents in preference to the rights of the adoptive parents.
• The family court on the basis of the testimony of the child(six years old) and in the best interests of the child, had decided in favor of the adoptive parents.
• The biological parents asserted that mere custody for sometime was given to the adoptive parents.
• Section 2(2) of the JJ Act provides that adoption completely severs the ties between the biological parents and the child.
• The court concluded that children cannot be treated as the ‘chattel and property’ of their biological parents
• She should not undergo the trauma of separation from her adoptive parents
• The court gave much importance to the right of the child to know her real identity and the right of her biological parents to her custody.
• The court moved on the premise that there was no legal adoption
• Therefore, the adoptive parents have no right in respect of the child.

Article 44 of the Constitution:

• The state shall endeavor to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India’.
• The language of Article 44 reveals the unambiguous intention of the framers of the Constitution and that they felt the UCC was in the national interest.
• Article 44: It requires the state to enact a UCC that applies to all citizens cutting across faiths, practices and personal laws.

Benefits of UCC:

• UCC can protect against discrimination in matters pertaining to divorce, maintenance, adoption and succession.
• The UCC seeks to establish a common set of civil laws for all citizens, regardless of their religion and culture, thereby promoting equality and ensuring justice for all.

Judicial stand:

• Shah Bano case: “It is a matter of regret that Article 44 has remained a dead letter.”
• The Court had pointed out that a UCC would help the cause of national integration.
• In the constitutional order of priorities, the right to religious freedom is to be exercised in a manner consonant with the vision underlying the provisions of Part III (Fundamental Rights)”.
• Sarla Mudgal (1995): Court said:
• “It appears that the rulers of the day are not in a mood to retrieve Article 44 from the cold storage where it has been lying since 1949.
• The governments have so far failed to make any effort towards unified personal law for all Indians.
• Indian Young Lawyers Association case (2018):
• In the constitutional order of priorities, the right to religious freedom is to be exercised in a manner consonant with the vision underlying the provisions of Part III (Fundamental Rights).”
• Personal laws should be constitutionally compliant and in conformity with the norms of gender equality and the right to live with dignity.
• The supremacy of fundamental rights over customary law ensures that various freedoms guaranteed to all citizens under the Constitution are safeguarded.

Arguments in favor of UCC:

• Uniformity in cases: India does have uniformity in most criminal and civil matters like the Criminal Procedure Code, Civil Procedure Code etc
• Gender Justice: If a UCC is enacted, all personal laws will cease to exist. It will do away with gender biases in existing laws.
• Secularism: A secular nation needs a common law for all citizens rather than differentiated rules based on religious practices.
• Various communities in India: Example: All Hindus are not governed by a homogenous personal law even after the enactment of the Hindu Code Bill.
• Shariat Act: There is no uniform applicability when it comes to the Muslim personal law or the Shariat Act 1937.
• Hindu Marriage Act of 1955: It prohibits marriages amongst close relatives but they are considered auspicious in the south of India.
• Hindu Succession Act of 1956: Wives are not coparceners(a person who shares equally with others in the inheritance of an undivided estate) nor do they have an equal share in inheritance.

Arguments against UCC:

• Plurality in already codified civil and criminal laws: So concept of ‘one nation, one law’ cannot be applied to diverse personal laws of various communities.
• Constitutional law experts: Framers did not intend total uniformity.
• Example: Personal laws were placed in Concurrent List(power to legislate being given to Parliament and State Assemblies).
• Customary laws: Many tribal groups in the country, regardless of their religion, follow their own customary laws.
• Communal Politics: The demand for a uniform civil code is considered to be framed in the context of communal politics.
• Article 25: It seeks to preserve the freedom to practice and propagate any religion.

Way Forward

• UCC cannot confine itself to changing the rule of the father being the natural guardian.
• It must go beyond this and provide for, in unequivocal terms, the ‘best interests of child’ principle in all custody disputes.
• It must deny absolute rights of biological parents vis-à-vis adoptive parents.
• A progressive UCC should not overemphasize biological ties.
• It must protect the rights of adoptive parents; otherwise people would not adopt children.
• UCC should not insist on the matrimonial bond between parents and should ideally make provision of guardianship even for a single parent, surrogate parent and queer parents.
• A UCC would eliminate discriminatory practices that deprive women of their rights and provide them with equal opportunities and protections.
• Personal laws should have a two-dimensional acceptance — they should be constitutionally compliant and consistent with the norms of gender equality and the right to live with dignity.

General Studies Paper 3

• Any hydrocarbon fuel that is produced from an organic matter (living or once living material) in a short period of time (days, weeks, or even months) is considered a biofuel.
• Biofuels may be solid, liquid or gaseous in nature.
• Solid: Wood, dried plant material, and manure
• Liquid: Bioethanol and Biodiesel
• Gaseous: Biogas
• These can be used to replace or can be used in addition to diesel, petrol or other fossil fuels for transport, stationary, portable and other applications.
• They can be used to generate heat and electricity.
• Some of the main reasons for shifting to biofuels are the rising prices of oil, emission of greenhouse gasses from fossil fuels and the interest in obtaining fuel from agricultural crops for the benefit of farmers.

Different Categories of Biofuels:

Biofuels in India:

• In India, biofuel is synonymous with first-generation (1G) ethanol, which is primarily sourced from food crops.
• The policy target in India of achieving 20% ethanol blending with petrol (E20) by 2025-26 is expected to be met almost entirely by 1G ethanol made from sugar cane and foodgrains.
• Second-generation (2G) ethanol made from crop wastes and residues
• It is unlikely to contribute much to achieving this target due to several challenges related to the feedstock supply chain and scaling up.

Growing a crop for energy may not be a sustainable strategy for India:

• India’s crop yields have already stagnated, and global warming is expected to reduce yields
• The same area under cultivation (arable land) will produce less with time but will need to suffice for a growing population.
• Strategy to meet blending targets cannot depend on surplus crop production.
• University of Michigan Study: It projected that the rates of groundwater depletion could triple during 2040-81 compared with the current rate.
• This is attributable to temperature rise and the resultant increase in crop water requirements.
• With such limited resources, food production should be prioritized over fuel.
• The agriculture sector is one of the hardest-to-abate in terms of direct greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
• Increasing GHG emissions from this sector for motor fuel production in order to decrease GHG emissions from the transport sector
• It is an unnecessary balancing loop that would achieve little net benefit.

Steps that need to be taken:

• The ethanol blending policy has been a good strategy to deal with the surplus sugar production.
• For Surplus sugar production: reduce surplus sugarcane cultivation.
• Increasing farmer income is often waved as a white flag but sugarcane being a remunerative crop has more to do with government intervention
• Any unassuming crop could be made as remunerative as sugar cane if so desired.
• ‘Sustainable’ biofuels need to be produced from crop residues and other wastes, with low water and GHG footprint.
• The Global Biofuels Alliance that was formed at the G-20 Summit in New Delhi is expected to strengthen the development of sustainable biofuels, in addition to promoting ethanol uptake.

Way Forward

• The Energy Transitions Commission report on ‘Bioresources within a Net-Zero Emissions Economy: It recommended that biomass should be prioritized for use in sectors where there are limited low-carbon alternatives.
• Long-haul aviation and road freight segments, wherein complete electrification might take longer to achieve
• They could make the cut, whereas petrol vehicles (for which ethanol blending is currently being targeted) would probably not.
• According to the International Energy Agency: To achieve net-zero emissions by 2050 globally, sustainable biofuel production needs to triple by 2030 to fuel modes that have few other mitigation options.
• Although 1G ethanol is unlikely to fit the bill, 2G ethanol could be counted as a sustainable fuel, especially if the production is decentralized, i.e., crop residues do not have to be transported large distances to a central manufacturing plant.
• But this might affect achieving economies of scale for the 2G plant.
• Balancing economies of scale with the energy needs (and costs) of biomass collection and transport across large distances is a major challenge.
• The Global Biofuels Alliance could help drive innovation and technology development in establishing an efficient biomass supply chain and smaller-scale decentralized biofuel production units.
• Achieving true sustainability is complex, especially with respect to biofuels.
• Any strategy should be carefully examined in the context of the larger ecosystem to avoid unintended negative consequences.

General Studies Paper 3

Context

Renewable energy:

• They are natural and self-replenishing, and usually have a low- or zero-carbon footprint.
• Examples of renewable energy sources:
• Wind power
• Solar power
• Bioenergy (organic matter burned as a fuel)
• Hydroelectric including tidal energy.

Renewable energy current status:

• Global installed capacity of renewable energy sources (RES)(2021)for electricity generation: It was 3026 GigaWatts (GW), or 39% of the total capacity from all sources.
• In total electricity generation the contribution by RES was only 28%.
• More than half the RE generation was from hydropower, while solar (13%) and wind (23%).
• It accounted for about 36% of RE generation, that is 10% of generation from all sources.

Target of Tripling RE capacity by 2030:

• It implies a target of about 9000 GW, which is more than the total installed capacity from all sources in 2021
• Adding about 6000 GW of RE capacity between 2022 and 2030.
• Most of this capacity is expected to come from solar and wind
• Capacity utilization factor of 25% for solar and wind combined: It implies the generation of about 13,000 TWh of electricity from RES
• If growth in global electricity demand is at the pre-COVID-19 decade average of 2.6%: The target of tripling RE capacity implies 38% of total global electricity production from RES.

Regionally differentiated energy needs:

• Electricity demand across countries is highly differentiated
• The rates of growth vary for countries at different stages of development.
• Electricity consumption between 2010 and 2019 in China and India grew annually at 6(six point six)% and 6.3(six point three)%, respectively
• A 3(zero point three)% decline in the European Union (EU) and a minimal 0.12(zero point one two)% growth in the United States.
• Any substantial RE addition in the EU and the U.S. must come from an accelerated phaseout of their fossil fuel use by 2030.
• US and EU: Only 21% of the electricity in the U.S. and 37% in the EU comes from RES (including hydro and biomass).

How different countries will fulfill Energy demands?

• US: If the U.S. does not phase out its existing fossil fuel capacity
• It will need only about 26 GW of new RE capacity to meet additional demand,
• Its share of the tripling target of an additional 6000 GW by 2030, would be only a measly 4(zero point four)%.
• India would need about 717 GW of RE capacity to meet additional demand
• Its share of the tripling target would be 12%.
• If all the fossil fuel-based electricity production of the U.S. and the EU is phased out: They would need to add about 1565 GW and 538 GW of additional RE capacity, respectively
• with a full phase-out of fossil fuel-based capacity: S. and the EU would account for more than a third of the new capacity
• It will allow developing countries a less onerous transition in the energy sector.

International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) report:

• It calls for “total renewable power capacity to more than triple by 2030, compared to 2022 levels, to over 11 TW globally”.
• IRENA’s scenario, underlying the proposed COP28 target, is very close to the first, highly inequitable scenario.
• IRENA report: Most of the non-RE capacity to be added by 2030 is in developing regions.
• By 2030, 80% of power generation capacity in Sub-Saharan Africa is to be from RE sources, as compared to only 70% for the EU.
• The EU and Sub-Saharan Africa are projected to add about the same amount of RE capacity by 2050
• The non-RE capacity in the EU continues to be more than four times that of Sub-Saharan Africa.
• India: India needs to exceed even the very ambitious 500 GW mark by 2030.

Issues with the report:

• Equity: Lack of equity apart
• Such absolute projections of installed capacity suffer from the fundamental problem of divorcing capacity addition from growth in energy demand.
• IRENA itself recognises that relative targets are inherently less risky as they are less dependent on demand growth matching expectations.
• The entire burden is on developing countries.
• The enormous increase in RE capacity is not possible without matching non-RE capacity for stability of supply
• The availability of viable storage options that are as yet nowhere near the scale envisaged by such ambitious targets.
• Finding the resources to build national grids adequate for their development needs at such levels of scaling up of RE capacity
• It will pose additional challenges, given the inability to reach even the minimal annual target of $100 billion of climate finance covering all sectors.

Way Forward

• When the Prime Minister announced at COP26 that India would increase its ambition to 500GW from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030 S. President made no such promise or declared any renewable energy target.
• Apart from a general announcement (not committed under the Paris Agreement) to decarbonise the energy sector by 2035.
• The EU too has only a relative target, though an ambitious sounding goal of 40% of final energy consumption from renewable sources by 2030, but certainly not absolute.
• For both the U.S. and the EU: The targets are essentially market signals, which the governments will promote, but are not guaranteed by government intervention as in the developing countries.
• Developing countries at COP28, especially India, should consider the tripling global RE capacity target only if the North commits to absolute targets domestically, that are equitable and commensurate with their responsibility
• An update of their Nationally Determined Contributions under the Paris Agreement.