General Studies Paper – 2

Context: Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates have joined BRICS as new full members.

About

• It was done as per the decision adopted by the 15th BRICS Summit in 2022.
• A proposal to admit six countries, including Argentina, into the bloc with effect from January 1.
• Argentina’s new President announced withdrawing his country from becoming a member of the BRICS.

About BRICS

• BRICS is an acronym that refers to a group of five major emerging national economies: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
• The term was originally coined by economist Jim O’Neill in 2001.
• BRICS brings together five of the largest developing countries of the world, representing around 41% of the global population, around 24% of the global GDP and around 16% of global trade.
• Origin: As a formal grouping, BRIC started after the meeting of the Leaders of Russia, India and China in St. Petersburg on the margins of the G8 Outreach Summit in 2006.
• The grouping was formalized during the 1st meeting of BRIC Foreign Ministers on the margins of UNGA in New York in 2006.
• The success of the meet led to the crystallisation of an annual summit under the aegis of BRIC.
• Initially, the grouping was termed BRIC as South Africa was inducted in 2010 and from there on it has been referred to as BRICS.

Summits:  The governments of the BRICS states have met annually at formal summits since 2009.

Over a period of time, BRICS countries have come together to deliberate on important issues under the three pillars of:

• Political and security,
• Economic and financial and
• Cultural and people-to-people exchanges.

New Development Bank: Formerly referred to as the BRICS Development Bank, is a multilateral development bank established by the BRICS states.

The Bank shall support public or private projects through loans, guarantees, equity participation and other financial instruments.

Significance of Expansion

• Strengthening the Group: BRICS currently represents around 40% of the world’s population and more than a quarter of the world’s GDP.

With the additions, it will represent almost half the world’s population, and will include three of the world’s biggest oil producers, Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Iran.

• Focus on Middle East: With the inclusion of Saudi Arabia, Iran, the UAE, and Egypt, there is a discernible Middle East focus, bearing geo-economic, geostrategic, and geopolitical implications.
• Representative of Developing Countries: The addition of new members bolsters the BRICS group’s influence as a representative body of the developing world.
• Voice for Global Governance: The grouping now represents a larger share of the world’s population and economy.

However, this only means that the group is potentially a powerful voice for reform of the arrangements for global governance and a powerful actor in these arrangements.

Impact on India’s Position

Chinese Dominance: Among the newly admitted members, India regards each as a valuable partnership to cultivate.

• Apprehensions have emerged regarding the potential for the group to become more pro-China, potentially overshadowing India’s influence and concerns.
• Although China desires BRICS to embody an anti-western stance, India’s perspective is inclined toward maintaining the group as a “non-Western” entity.

Addressing the Challanges: For BRICS to maintain long-term effectiveness, India and China must address their border disputes and cooperate on complex global matters, including allocating resources for the growth of developing economies.

If India aims to genuinely represent the voice of the Global South, harmonizing these diverse interests into a unified stance could present a more formidable challenge than initially anticipated.

Way Ahead

• As the BRICS operates based on consensus-driven decision-making, attaining consensus among 10 countries characterized by diverse economies, geographical locations, and interests proves to be substantially more challenging than doing so among the original five members.

To ensure the continued effectiveness and consistency of the institution, in the long run, BRICS might opt to focus on easier-to-achieve objectives.

General Studies Paper – 1

Context: The Prime Minister of India paid tributes to social reformer Savitri Bai Phule & Rani Velu Nachiyar on their Jayanti.

Savitribai Phule (3 January 1831 – 10 March 1897)

• She was a woman from the Mali Community and went on to become an educator, a challenger to caste hierarchies and barriers, and a writer.
• Married Jyotirao Phule at an early age.
• At a time when it was considered unacceptable for women to even attain education, she with her husband went on to open a school for girls in Pune, in 1848.
• This became the country’s first girls’ school.
• They opened more such schools for girls, Shudras, and Ati-Shudras (the backward castes and Dalits, respectively) in Pune, leading to discontent among Indian nationalists like Bal Gangadhar Tilak.

Major Contributions:

• Social Reformer: Along with Jyotirao, Savitribai started the Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha (Home for the Prevention of Infanticide) for pregnant widows facing discrimination.
• Savitribai Phule advocated inter-caste marriages, widow remarriage, and eradication of child marriage, sati, and dowry systems, among other social issues.
• Satyashodhak Samaj: In 1873, the Phule’s set up the Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth-seekers’ society), a platform open to all, irrespective of their caste, religion or class hierarchies, with the sole aim of bringing social equity.
• Satyashodhak Marriage, as an extension, started with the aim of rejecting Brahmanical rituals where the marrying couple takes a pledge to promote education and equality.
• Relief work during famine and Bubonic plague: Savitribai became involved in relief work during the 1896 famine in Maharashtra and the 1897 Bubonic plague.
• Literary Works: Savitribai Phule published her first collection of poems, called Kavya Phule (Poetry’s Blossoms), at the age of 23 in 1854.
• She published Bavan Kashi Subodh Ratnakar (The Ocean of Pure Gems) in 1892.

Rani Velu Nachiyar (3 January 1730 – 25 December 1796)

• She was the first queen to fight against the British colonial power in India.
• She is known by Tamils as Veeramangai.
• Early Life: She was the princess of Ramanathapuram and the only child of Raja Chellamuthu Vijayaragunatha Sethupathy and Rani Sakandhimuthal of the Ramnad kingdom.
• Skills Acquired: She was trained in war to match weapons usage, martial arts like Valari, Silambam (fighting using a stick), horse riding, and archery.
• She was a scholar in many languages and she had proficiency with languages like French, English and Urdu.
• Marriage: She married the king of Sivagangai.
• Succession: She succeeded her husband in 1780 and granted powers to the Marudu brothers to administer the country in 1780.

General Studies Paper – 1

Context: Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC) stated that there is no tsunami threat to India following the Tsunami in Japan.

Tsunami:

• Tsunami (a Japanese word that means “harbor wave”) is a series of giant ocean waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions under the ocean.
• The formation of a tsunami can depend on a host of factors, including the shape of the ocean floor, and the earthquake’s distance and direction.
• The speed of a tsunami depends on the depth of the water it is traveling through. The deeper the water; the faster the tsunami.

Causes of Tsunami

• Earthquake: When an earthquake takes place under the ocean, a large chunk of the ocean floor can suddenly move upward or downward, leading to a sudden displacement of a large volume of water, thereby causing tsunami waves.
• Volcano eruption: When a volcano erupts in the ocean, the lava flowing out of the volcano displaces the water around it and that water can become a large wave.

How are tsunamis detected?

• Seismic Networks: When an earthquake occurs, seismic networks provide information about an earthquake’s location, depth, magnitude, and other source characteristics. The warning centers analyze this information to determine if the earthquake could have generated a tsunami and if a tsunami message is necessary.
• Water-Level Networks: If an earthquake meets certain criteria, the warning centers turn to water-level information, looking for changes in water-level height that could indicate the existence and size of a tsunami.
• The primary sources of information about water-level change are a network of Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunami (DART) systems and an extensive array of coastal water-level stations.

Consequences of Tsunami

• Loss of Life: Tsunamis can cause significant loss of life, especially in densely populated coastal regions.

In 2011, Japan was hit by a 9.0 magnitude earthquake and a resulting tsunami which killed around 18,000 people

• Major Accidents: The 2011 tsunami in Japan led to a nuclear meltdown at the Fukushima power plant, causing one of the most severe nuclear accidents.
• Displacement of Communities: People living in coastal areas are forced to evacuate or relocate which can lead to temporary or long-term homelessness and strain on resources.
• Infrastructure Disruption: Tsunamis can damage critical infrastructure such as roads, bridges, ports, and utilities, disrupting transportation and communication networks.

Why is Japan prone to earthquakes and tsunamis?

• Japan is situated along the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’, which is the most active earthquake tectonic belt in the world.
• The ‘ring’ refers to “an imaginary horseshoe-shaped zone that follows the rim of the Pacific Ocean, where many of the world’s earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur,”
• Within the Ring of Fire, there are different tectonic belts, including the Pacific Plate, Eurasian Plate, and Indo-Australian Plate, which keep meshing and colliding with each other, causing earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis.

General Studies Paper – 3

Context: Black holes and neutron stars have remained a mystery. However, because of their immensely strong magnetic fields, these celestial bodies emit highly energetic X-ray light, which can be used to study their properties.

For this purpose, on January 1st, 2024, ISRO’s PSLV put into orbit the XPoSat (X-ray Polarimeter Satellite) – the country’s first space observatory to study the polarisation of cosmic X-rays.

This is the world’s second space mission to study the polarisation of cosmic X-rays, after NASA’s IXPE, launched in 2021. XPoSat operates in a frequency band different from NASA’s mission.

What are X-rays?

X-rays are electromagnetic waves. These are generated by movements of electric charges when the electric and magnetic fields in its vicinity are disturbed.

What are Polarised X-rays?

• In electromagnetic waves like X-rays, the electric field oscillates or varies in strength and direction as the wave propagates. The direction and nature of this variation in the electric field depend on the motion of the electric charge responsible for generating the wave.
• For instance, as the X-ray wave travels, if the electric charge responsible for producing the X-ray is in motion (such as an electron accelerating), it affects the way the electric field changes as the wave moves.
• Sometimes these variations acquire directionality (variations in a particular direction), which is when these X-rays are described as being “polarised”.
• Stars mostly emit unpolarised light, however it is different in the case of stars with very large magnetic fields. Electrons in those objects spiral around the magnetic field lines and emit X-rays. The electrons’ motion provides the X-rays with some directionality, making them polarised.
• Measuring the polarisation of X-rays can enable astronomers to understand the nature of these polarised X-ray emitting-objects, such as pulsars or regions around blackholes.

Note: Pulsar: A pulsar (or pulsating radio source) is a neutron star that rotates quickly and releases two polarised radio lights. The beams create a unique timing and polarisation signature as they burst across space. Pulsars are among the few celestial objects that emit circular polarised light.

Why is it difficult to study X-rays from space?

• Their high energy makes them impossible to focus with lenses, like ordinary light.
• The Earth’s atmosphere absorbs most of it.

How will XPoSat Mission study X-rays?

• The main instrument aboard, the payload called POLIX (Indian X-ray Polarimeter), aims to study a special property of X-rays in space. POLIX is shaped like a cubical cylinder. At its core lies a disc of beryllium. Detectors kept along the walls collect X-rays after their scattering from the metallic disc.
• POLIX’s beryllium disc will let astronomers probe lower energy X-rays than what the NASA instrument is capable of.
• The other instrument (XSPECT) aboard XPoSat will study timing and spectral properties of X-ray emitting objects in space.
• With this venture, ISRO has signaled that it has the expertise and maturity to contribute to all aspects of planetary research.

General Studies Paper – 2

Context: The Aspirational Districts Programme (ADP) was launched by the Prime Minister in January 2018. With this initiative, the Government has tried to change the development narrative by referring to these districts as ‘aspirational’ instead of ‘backward’. Since its launch, all 112 underdeveloped districts included in the programme have improved their performance.

• It was launched in 2018 to improve the socio-economic status of 112 aspirational districts across 28 States. These districts had witnessed the least progress along certain development parameters. The districts accounted for more than 20% of the country’s population and covered over 8,600 gram panchayats.
• The Programme is coordinated by NITI Aayog with support from Central Ministries and the State Governments.

5 Core themes of ADP- The 5 core themes include:

(1) Health & Nutrition (30% weightage)

(2) Education (30% weightage)

(3) Agriculture & Water Resources (20% weightage)

(4) Financial Inclusion & Skill Development (10%)

(5) Basic Infrastructure (10%)

• The delta ranking of the Aspirational Districts combines the innovative use of data with pragmatic administration. The programme ranks districts based on the improvement achieved month-on-month through the Champions of Change dashboard (An online Dashboard).

What is the institutional framework and core strategy of the Aspirational Districts Programme?

Framework

• NITI Aayog anchors the program at Central level, while individual Ministries have been responsibility to drive progress in districts. The States are the main drivers of the programme. For each district, a central Prabhari officer has been nominated. He/she should possess a rank of joint secretary/additional secretary.

Core Strategy

The ADP is based on the following strategy-

1. Work on the strength of each district
2. Make development as a mass movement in these districts
3. Identify low hanging fruits and the strength of each district which can act as a catalyst for development
4. Measure progress and rank districts to spur a sense of competition
5. Districts shall aspire from becoming State’s best to Nation’s best

What is the significance of the Aspirational Districts Programme?

1. Greater autonomy- States and districts have a greater say in their own development. Local challenges differ significantly across the country. Thus, State and Local Governments are best-positioned to recognize their development challenges, and design customized policy interventions.
2. Better outcomes by improved governance- The programme has focused on improving governance, making use of existing resources more smartly and achieving better outcomes for the same amount of money.
3. Replication of innovative service delivery approaches- The smart classroom initiative being implemented in Banka, Bihar, to improve student learning outcomes, is being replicated in the aspirational districts across Bihar, Arunachal Pradesh, Odisha and Jharkhand.
4. Improved Collaboration- The aspirational district programme has increased the government collaboration with the private sector, philanthropic organizations and technical partners.
5. Competition among the districts- It has spurred competition among districts by allowing them to regularly assess their position vis-à-vis other aspirational districts, as well as the best performing districts in the country.

Achievements of the Aspirational Districts Programme:

The success achieved by the ADP has been globally recognized. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has appreciated the programme’s 3Cs principle and recommended its replication in other parts of the developing world.

1. Health and Nutrition- Model Anganwadi centres have been set up across districts to benefit women and children. The number of institutional deliveries has increased, along with a dip registered in the rate of severe acute malnutrition in infants. Poshan App has been developed for real-time health data analytics in Ranchi.
2. Education outcomes- Innovation and digitisation have been the cornerstone of transformation in the education sector. The ‘Hamara Vidyalaya’ model adopted in Namsai, a remote district in Arunachal Pradesh has shown substantial improvement in learning outcomes and overall teaching practices.
3. Agriculture and water resources- District administrations have laid emphasis on improving irrigation facilities, yield and farmer education. Several innovative paths have been adopted to create market linkages for products indigenous to the aspirational districts. For ex- the farmers of Chandauli, U.P were encouraged to grow fertiliser-free organic black rice.
4. Basic Infrastructure Development- This pillar witnessed significant advancement especially in LWE affected districts. This ensured better connectivity and seamless movement from rural to urban regions. For ex- Bijapur in Chhattisgarh and Malkangiri in Odisha have greatly improved the network of roadways and ramped up the infrastructure projects in their jurisdiction.
5. Financial inclusion and skill development- Micro-ATMs have been launched in Maharashtra’s Gadchiroli district to provide financial assistance to women self-help group members. They are provided with commission-based income on every transaction.

Issues associated with the implementation of Aspirational District Programme:

1. Inadequate Coverage: Although the program is highly inclusive in nature, it fails to capture crucial variables like environment and gender.
2. Imbalance in implementation: Most districts channelised their efforts focused on health and nutrition, education, and agriculture and water resources. They paid less emphasis on the sectors of Skill Development and Financial Inclusion.
3. Budgetary Constraints: ADP is affected by the issue pertaining to insufficient budgetary resources. This sustains the lack of human resources and dearth of technical capacities at the district and block level.
4. Issues in Coordination: NITI Aayog plays a mentoring role in 27 districts in eight states. 12 Central Government Ministries have similarly adopted the remaining districts. Implementation involving multiple ministries leads to a lack of coordination.
5. Shortcomings of Delta Ranking: It is largely focused on assessing quantity (that is, coverage of access) rather than quality. For ex- Timely delivery of textbooks in schools is part of the ranking index, however very less weightage is given to the quality of education rendered in these districts.

Way forward:

1. Formulate strategies for saturation of indicators- Special focus is required in sectors like health, nutrition and education to recover lost ground due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
2. Strengthen governance mechanisms- Analysis has shown that districts perform better when the tenure of key officials like the District Magistrate, Chief Medical Officer, District Agriculture Officers etc. are stable. It is crucial that vacancies for these key positions are regularly filled and stability is provided by the state authorities.
3. Extension of ADP template- Extension of the ADP template to under-developed blocks and districts which are lagging behind in social indicators.
4. Addition of sectors- The first UNDP appraisal of the Aspirational Districts Programme has recommended a realignment of sectors under the program by addition of topics such as environment and gender.

Conclusion

The success of the Aspirational Districts Programme has been testified by national as well as international agencies. It is a flagship initiative for improving the lives of citizens residing in most backward regions of the country. The need of the hour demands overcoming its challenges and realizing the vision of ‘SABKA SAATH, SABKA VIKAS’ for ensuring inclusive development.

General Studies Paper – 3

Context: The coal production in the country has shot up to over 664 million tonnes during the financial year 2023-24.

• It is a robust 12.29 percent increase over the corresponding figure of over 591 million tonnes for the same period of the previous year.
• The government aims to further increase production to reach 1 billion million tonnes by 2030.
• This increase ensures a consistent and robust coal supply to meet the energy needs of the power sector, highlighting the effectiveness of the coal supply chain.

Current Status of Coal Reserve

• India has rich deposits of coal in the world. Total estimated reserves of coal as on 01-04-2022 were 361.41 billion tonnes.
• The top three states with highest coal reserves in India are Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, which accounts for approximately 69% of the total coal reserves in the country.
• India is the second largest producer and consumer of coal globally after China, surpassing the USA in 2022.

Reasons for High Production

• Reliance on coal for electricity generation: Coal-fired thermal power plants (TPPs) generated 74.3% of India’s electricity during FY 2022-2023.
• Industrial demand: Industries like steel and cement heavily rely on coal as a fuel source.
• Limited domestic alternatives: Renewable energy sources like solar and wind are still not developed enough to fully replace coal.
• Only 10.4% of the 36.44 exajoules of India’s primary energy consumption in 2022 are from renewables (hydroelectric, solar, and wind); coal and oil gas account for 55.1% and 33.3%, respectively.

Arguments in favour of India’s continued reliance of coal

• India’s cumulative emissions from fossil fuels like coal between the start of the industrial revolution in 1750 and the end of 2021 are only 3.3% of the global total, far behind those of Europe (31%), the U.S. (24.3%), and China (14.4%).
• Fulfilling the development needs of 17% of the world’s population, which lives in India, is also a fundamental duty to which must be attended, failing which ‘sustainable development’ will simply be an empty catchphrase.
• Ninety-six percent of the coal used by TPPs in India comes from domestic mines and is key to why electricity is so affordable in India.

Challenges and Concerns

• Environmental impact: Coal mining and burning contribute significantly to air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and water contamination.
• Coal deposits in India generally contain high levels of ash (35-50%). Burning coal with more ash leads to pollution.
• Coal-fired thermal power plants (TPPs) are responsible for nearly 70% of India’s greenhouse gas emissions.
• Health impacts: Air pollution from coal combustion has severe health consequences like respiratory illnesses.
• Climate change: Continued dependence on coal hinders India’s progress towards carbon neutrality goals and commitments.
• Social impacts: Coal mining affects communities near mines, raising concerns about displacement, livelihood loss, and environmental degradation.

Way Ahead

• For India’s long-term goal of reaching net-zero by 2070, the country must continue to implement clean coal technologies to reduce the power sector’s emissions.
• India must focus on increasing the efficiency of its TPPs(Thermal Power Plants) to reduce emissions while ramping up nuclear, solar and wind energy into the grid.
• Coal production is expected to continue increasing in the near future. However, the long-term outlook for coal remains uncertain, with growing emphasis on clean energy transition and climate change mitigation.
• Diversifying energy sources, adopting cleaner technologies, and addressing social and environmental concerns are crucial for India’s sustainable energy future.

General Studies Paper – 2

Context: General Manoj Pande, Chief of the Army Staff of India, recently visited the Republic of Korea.

Background

• The deep-rooted connections between India and South Korea (RoK) can be traced back to 48 AD, as documented in the 13th-century Korean text “SamgukYusa.”
• It tells the story of Princess Suriratna of Ayodhya (later Queen Heo Hwang-ok), who married King Kim-Suro of the ancient Gaya Confederacy in Korea.
• Diplomatic relations established in 1973, further strengthened to a “Special Strategic Partnership” in 2015.
• Year 2023 marked the 50th anniversary of the establishment of formal diplomatic relations between India and RoK.

Areas of Cooperation

Economic Cooperation:

• FDI: South Korea is the 13th largest foreign direct investment (FDI) source in India, investing US$ 5.4 billion between April 2000 to December 2022, as per Invest India. Companies like Samsung, LG, and Hyundai have established manufacturing and service facilities.
• Bilateral trade: It has grown significantly, reaching over $17 billion in 2013 and exceeding $23 billion in 2022.
• CEPA: India and Korea signed the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) in 2010, further boosting trade and investment.

Technological Collaboration:

• Both countries are actively involved in knowledge sharing and joint research initiatives in areas like information technology, biotechnology, and renewable energy.
• Collaboration in space exploration and satellite technology is also gaining momentum.

Security and Defense:

• Regular military exchanges and joint exercises to enhance cooperation and understanding on regional security issues.
• Partnerships in defense technology development and procurement.

Cultural and Educational Exchange:

• Growing popularity of Korean pop culture (K-pop) and dramas in India, fostering cultural understanding and people-to-people exchanges.
• Increasing student mobility and academic partnerships between universities in both countries.

Challenges

• Rising nationalism and protectionist tendencies in both countries can pose challenges to further economic integration.
• North Korea’s nuclear program remains a concern for both India and South Korea, requiring coordinated efforts for regional stability.
• The emerging coalition of North Korea, China, and Russia poses a new serious challenge to collaborative efforts between the two nations.
• Divergent stances may arise, necessitating a nuanced appraisal of each party’s strategic imperatives.
• A challenge is the absence of a shared vision for a new comprehensive defence framework to construct a novel and sustainable emerging regional order.

Measures

• Explore technological collaborations: Leveraging their technological capabilities, India and South Korea should aim to collaborate in developing advanced defence systems and equipment.
• Explore opportunities: In an era where defence against space warfare, information warfare, and cybersecurity is paramount, both nations can further explore opportunities for cooperation.
• Tech arena: Given Korea’s status as an advanced high-tech digital superpower, vast opportunities exist in the development of robust security measures to effectively counter emerging threats in the digital domain.
• Counter terrorism: Strengthening coordinated efforts to counter terrorism aligns seamlessly with the shared concerns of India and South Korea.
• Maritime security: There is potential for collaboration in maritime security, including joint patrolling and information sharing, given the significant maritime interests both countries have in the Indian Ocean.
• Peacekeeping and exercises: India and South Korea can leverage their United Nations peacekeeping expertise for collaborative efforts through sharing insights and resources in peacekeeping operations.

Way Ahead

• The imperative for India and Korea is to transcend the confines of bilateral cooperation, and embrace a paradigm shift that cultivates a more profound understanding of their roles in the swiftly evolving global scenario.
• A strategic, balanced approach, coupled with adaptability to the evolving geopolitical landscape is key to unlocking a robust and enduring defence collaboration.

Overall, India and South Korea share a strong and multifaceted partnership. Addressing existing challenges and exploring new avenues of collaboration will further strengthen this strategic relationship in the years to come.

General Studies Paper – 1

Context: After the landfall of Cyclone Michuang, there is a need to take preventive measures to avoid urban flooding in India.

Floods:

• Increased incidence of high-intensity rainfall in short duration is mainly responsible for floods. It is further compounded by unplanned growth, encroachment of natural water bodies, poor drainage system, etc.
• Urban flooding is significantly different from rural flooding as urbanisation leads to developed catchments, which increases the flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times.
• According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), flood-related catastrophes have increased by 134% since 2000, compared with the two previous decades.
• The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in 2021, underscores rising global temperatures are dramatically affecting the water cycle, making floods and droughts more extreme and frequent.
• The IPCC highlighted the high probability that monsoon rainfalls will increase in the medium and long term, especially in South and Southeast Asia, causing severe floods.

Floods in India:

• Floods are a recurrent phenomenon, causing huge loss of lives and damage to livelihood systems, property, infrastructure and public utilities.
• Flood related damages show an increasing trend because of increase in population, rapid urbanisation, growing developmental and economic activities in flood plains coupled with global warming.
• Out of the total geographical area of 329 million hectares (mha), more than 40 mha is flood prone.
• An average every year, 75 lakh hectares of land is affected, 1600 lives are lost and the damage caused to crops, houses and public utilities.

Causes of Urban Floods:

Weather Systems: A special feature in India is that we have heavy rainfall during monsoons.

• Cyclones, cyclonic circulations and cloud bursts cause flash floods and lead to huge losses.
• Storm surges can also affect coastal cities/towns.
• Precipitation: 80% of the precipitation takes place in the monsoon months from June to September, and the rivers bring heavy sediment load from catchments, coupled with inadequate carrying capacity of rivers, are responsible for causing floods, drainage congestion and erosion of river-banks.
• Water release for dam: Sudden release or failure to release water from dams can also have a severe impact.
• Urban Heat Island: The urban heat island effect has increased rainfall over urban areas.
• Climate Change & Sea Level Rise: Global climate change is resulting in changed weather patterns and increased episodes of high-intensity rainfall events occurring in shorter periods.

Urban Challenges & Floods in India:

• Encroachment & Habitations: Encroachment is a major problem in many cities and towns.
• Natural streams and watercourses have formed over thousands of years due to the forces of flowing water in the respective watersheds.
• Loss of Drains: Ideally, the natural drains should have been widened (similar to road widening for increased traffic) to accommodate the higher flows of stormwater.
• Improper disposal systems: Improper disposal of solid waste, including domestic, commercial and industrial waste and dumping of construction debris into the drains also contribute significantly to reducing their capacities.
• Health Risk: Flood potentially increases chances of outbreak of infectious diseases. Affected areas become more prone to disease outbreak especially after the flood water dries up. Surge in diseases happens as flood water gets mixed up with sewage water and several other contaminants.
• Insufficient policy attention: Even though urban flooding has been experienced over decades in India, sufficient attention was not given to planning specific efforts to deal with it.

Solutions:

Nature based Solutions: Restoration includes a variety of ecological, physical, spatial and management interventions aimed at restoring the natural state and functioning of the ecosystem. It includes:

• Wetland Restoration;
• River / lake Restoration;
• Reviving Ecological Area;
• Riparian Vegetation Restoration;
• Mangrove Restoration;
• Restoring Natural Drainage Terrain
• Bioremediation of water bodies: It is a process followed to improve the quality of water wherein microbes are introduced in the water body to break down the pollutants.
• Bioswales are landscape vegetation designed to convey stormwater while removing debris and pollution.
• Recharge well is a technique to use rainwater for replenishing the ground water.
• Bioretention system is a landscaped depression that not only captures surface runoff but also treats the water.
• Rain water harvesting techniques include a wide array of interventions that stores surface runoff water and/or recharges groundwater.
• Permeable Ground Surfaces: Increasing permeable surfaces in the city, especially of footpaths and other green areas can help reduce the surface runoff and replenish groundwater to an extent.

Planning Interventions:

• Urban River Management Plan: The National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) and the National Institute of Urban Affairs have developed a framework for developing Urban River Management Plan (URMP) to help river cities systematically and holistically plan for interventions required to revive and maintain the rivers within their limits in a sustainable manner.
• River Basin Management plan: It provides a road map for conserving, managing and developing river water, river basin and related resources to achieve maximum socio, economic and environmental benefits.
• Flood Resilience Strategy or flood mitigation plans define the short, medium and long-term measures to be adopted for strengthening flood resilience. The roles and responsibilities of various agencies and stakeholders are also defined in this strategy.
• Plan for interlinking rivers and canals: It includes large scale infrastructure related intervention to support efficient management of water resources. The intent is to address floods, water shortages, groundwater recharge and irrigation.
• Community based Flood Management Plan: It engages local communities in all the phases of a flood – prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery.

Government efforts to curtail floods in India:

Management of urban flooding falls under purview of the State Governments and the Urban Local Bodies/Urban Development Authorities who are responsible for maintaining the drainage and sewerage system.

• Urban Flood Mitigation Project: India’s maiden urban flood mitigation project worth Rs 561 crore under the National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF). The Prime Minister of India approved the country’s first urban flood mitigation project under the NDMF.
• Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Groundwater – 2020: It has been prepared by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) in collaboration with States/UTs envisaging construction of about 1.42 crore rain water harvesting and artificial recharge structures in the country to harness 185 Billion Cubic Meter (BCM) of water.
• Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA): Its emphasis is being given for rainwater harvesting/groundwater recharge in water stressed blocks across India with the primary aim to effectively harvest the monsoon rainfall through creation of artificial recharge structures, watershed management, recharge and reuse structures, intensive afforestation and awareness generation etc. JSA for the year 2023 has been launched with the theme ‘Source Sustainability for Drinking Water’.
• The Amrit Sarovar Mission: It has been launched with an aim of developing and rejuvenating 75 water bodies in each district of the country as a part of celebration of Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav for rainwater harvesting/recharge.
• Atal Bhujal Yojana: The focus is on demand side management of ground water and accordingly water saving interventions such as use of micro irrigation (drip/sprinkler system), shifting of cropping pattern from high water intensive crops to low water intensive crops, mulching etc. are being encouraged and incentivised.
• The Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) 2.0 Scheme: The provisions have been made for harvesting the rainwater through storm water drains into the water body (which is not receiving sewage/effluent) & creation/ strengthening of storm water drains around the water body.

General Studies Paper – 3

Context:

• There were numerous pledges made at the COP28 summit in Dubai, but India decided not to sign any legally-binding agreements and instead to support statements of intent that were centred around low-carbon hydrogen and financial accessibility.
• But because nations are reluctant to codify these endorsements into legally enforceable agreements, questions are raised about these endorsements’ efficacy.

Global Temperature Projections:

• Even if all of this year’s commitments are fulfilled, the UN projects a rise in temperature of 2.5 to 2.9 degrees Celsius.
• Given that the world is expected to rise above the 1.5 degree Celsius limit set at COP21 in Paris eight years ago, this presents a serious issue.

Per Capita Emissions and Country Contributions:

• Sharp differences can be seen when per capita emissions from the Rio Earth Summit are analysed.
• Between 1992 and 2019, the average American produced around 700 tonnes of greenhouse gases, which is more than three times the amount produced globally.
• China must deal with growing emissions from ongoing coal-fired power plant building, while the US must surpass its carbon reduction promises in order to reach climate targets.

Global Emission Contributions:

• With varying degrees of commitment, the G20 countries accounted for 74% of world emissions in 2021.
• Russia hasn’t taken any major steps to reduce emissions, but the EU, Japan, Canada, South Korea, and the UK are actively working to reduce pollution.

Unique Challenges of India, Brazil, and Indonesia:

• With 19% of GHG emissions coming from Brazil, Indonesia, and India, these countries confront particular difficulties because of their relatively small historical contributions to global warming.
• It is unjust to expect these nations to drastically reduce their use of fossil fuels.
• It is recommended that strong nations set high goals and encourage others to do the same.

Economic Viability of Coal and the Role of Natural Gas:

• The cost-competitiveness of renewable energy sources is making coal less economically viable.
• The COP28 language, however, highlights natural gas as a vital bridge fuel while ignoring the substantial role that methane—the main ingredient in natural gas plays in the present warming trend.
• India can contribute to the urgent need to reduce methane emissions by using technology advancements and better water management practices.

India’s Role and Achievements:

• India has made a substantial contribution to the development of the climate discourse by highlighting issues of energy availability, equity, and climate justice.
• The nation has met its 2030 targets ahead of schedule and has cut its emission intensity by 33 percent.
• Aligning policy with sustainable development is still difficult, though.

Hope Amid Challenges:

• There is optimism for the future of COP conferences in the form of global financial support, technical improvements, and national moral pressure.
• But even these might not be enough to prevent a global climate catastrophe, which is why international leaders must work towards stronger pledges.

Conclusion:

• In order to address the approaching climate problem, states are urged to take meaningful action rather than just symbolic gestures, as the analysis highlights the intricacies and difficulties underlying global climate obligations.

General Studies Paper – 2

 Context:

• The article highlights the need for innovative solutions in neuropsychiatry, focusing on rehabilitation services.
• It emphasizes a holistic approach, professional empowerment, and the impact of scientific advances to enhance the lives of individuals with neuropsychiatric disorders globally.

Introduction:

• Reflects on the importance of International Day for Persons with Disabilities (December 3)and emphasizes the need for innovative solutions in neuropsychiatry.

Global Neuropsychiatric Disorders Landscape:

• Range across the lifespan from childhood (autism, ADHD, intellectual disability) to adolescence and adulthood (anxiety, depression, addiction, schizophrenia) to old age (Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s).
• Significant impact on global population with millions affected, emphasizing the need for effective interventions.

Rehabilitation Challenges and Opportunities:

• WHO reports 2.41 billion individuals needing rehabilitation, contributing to 310 million Years of Living with Disabilities (YLD).
• Rehabilitation often overlooked, considered disability-specific, leading to under-resourcing.
• Awareness needed that disablement can be treated, even reversed, in many cases.
• Call to prioritize rehabilitation as an essential service and encourage multidisciplinary approaches.

Multidisciplinary Approach to Rehabilitation:

• Rehabilitation services must address a wide spectrum of neurological and mental health problems.
• Beyond doctors and nurses, professionals like physical therapists, occupational therapists, speech therapists, and caregivers crucial.
• Emphasis on enhancing professional profiles, improving training, and creating opportunities for career development.

Scientific Advances in Neuropsychiatry:

• Non-invasive Brain Stimulation(NIBS) procedures like rTMS and FMS have proven effectiveness in various conditions.
• Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (TES) shows promise in improving memory, cognition, mood, and behavior.
• Transcutaneous Auricular Vagus Nerve Stimulation (tA-VNS) gains importance post-COVID-19 era, investigated for depression, migraine, and dysautonomia.

Collaborative Solutions for Inclusion:

• UN’s call for disability inclusion aligns with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
• 80% of people with disabilities reside in developing countries.
• Collaboration between governments, public and private sectors crucial for finding innovative solutions, making the world more accessible and equitable.

Conclusion:

• It is high time to make global commitment to making the world more accessible and equitable for the one billion people with disabilities, especially in developing countries.