General studies Paper I

Answer to Question No. 1 to 10 should not exceed 150 words in each case. Contents of the answers are more important than their length. Each question carries 08 marks.

1. Write a note on key aspects of “Walterkrit Hitkarni Sabha”.

Answer:-

Introduction

The Walterkrit Hitkarni Sabha, also called the Walterkrit Rajputra Hitkarini Sabha, was established in 1888 at Ajmer under the guidance of Colonel Walter, the Acting Agent to the Governor General for Rajputana. It was aimed at introducing social reforms among the Rajput community in the princely states of Rajasthan.

Key Aspects of Walterkrit Hitkarni Sabha

1. Background and Establishment

• Initiated after Colonel Walter circulated letters in 1887 to Rajput princely states, calling representatives to a reformist meeting.
• The first session took place in March 1888 at Ajmer, with participation from several states.

2. Objectives

• To reduce extravagant expenses on marriage and funeral ceremonies.
• To curb harmful social customs such as tika, reet, and dowry-like practices.
• To set minimum marriage ages (14 for girls, 18 for boys).
• To discourage polygamy and other regressive traditions.

3. Activities and Role

• Organized annual conferences where reforms were debated and resolutions passed.
• Worked as a reformist platform within Rajput society rather than as a political body.
• Continued to function until the 1930s, when it gradually lost influence.

Conclusion

The Walterkrit Hitkarni Sabha was a pioneering reformist initiative in Rajputana. By addressing social evils and promoting moderation in customs, it marked an early step in the modernization of Rajput society and reflected the wider reformist currents in late 19th-century India.

2. Examine critically the effects of Industrial revolution on cultural and intellectual life of Europe.

Answer:-

Introduction

The Industrial Revolution (late 18th–19th centuries) was not only an economic and technological transformation but also reshaped Europe’s cultural and intellectual life. Urbanization, industrial capitalism, and new technologies influenced social values, literature, art, philosophy, and debates on modernity and human progress.

Main Body: Cultural and Intellectual Impacts of the Industrial Revolution

1. Social and Cultural Values

• Industrialization created an urban-industrial society, replacing agrarian traditions.
• Emphasis shifted to progress, rationality, and material advancement.
• Middle-class values like discipline, thrift, and self-help became prominent, reflected in Samuel Smiles’ Self-Help (1859). 

2. Literature and Arts

• Writers like Charles Dickens depicted poverty and child labor.
• Romanticism (Wordsworth, Byron) reacted against industrialization, glorifying nature and emotion.
• Realism and Naturalism (Balzac, Zola) portrayed harsh industrial realities.

3. Intellectual and Scientific Shifts

• Science and technology inspired optimism; Auguste Comte’s positivism emphasized empirical knowledge.
• Marx and Engels critiqued capitalism in The Communist Manifesto, highlighting class struggle and alienation.
• Social sciences and political theory developed to study industrial society.

4. Criticism and Anxiety

• Critics like John Ruskin condemned industrialism for eroding art and tradition.
• Social reform movements emerged to address cultural and moral concerns.

Conclusion

The Industrial Revolution transformed Europe’s intellectual and cultural life, fostering progress, new literary currents, and scientific thought, while also generating critiques of inequality, alienation, and loss of tradition.

3. Examine critically the Land Movement of Sirmour and Bhagal in the 19th Century.

Answer:

In the 19th century, peasants in the hill states of Himachal faced severe hardships due to heavy land revenue, arbitrary cesses, and begār (forced labour). In this context, Sirmour and Bhagal witnessed agrarian unrest. While these movements were not large-scale revolts, they reflected the simmering discontent of the rural population.

1.Causes of unrest in both states:

• Excessive land revenue demands collected in multiple instalments.
• Begār system, where peasants were forced to supply unpaid labour for roads and state works.
• Village levies and cesses which added to their burden.
• Lack of secure land rights for ordinary cultivators, despite zamindars being granted proprietary titles.

Peasant protests in Sirmour and Bhagal:

• Sirmour (Raja Shamsher Prakash, 1856–1898):
• The 1878 settlement and colonization of Kiarda Dun gave zamindars proprietary rights but tightened extraction through revenue instalments and village funds.
• Peasant discontent surfaced through local protests against extra levies.
• Significance: Reflected the tension between “modernization” and exploitation in princely governance.
• Bhagal (Raja Kishan Singh 1840–1875, Raja Dhian Singh 1877–1904):
• Peasants were subjected to begār for roads and state projects, in addition to land dues.
• Later, some begār was commuted into cash, but special begār and cesses continued.
• Significance: Shows persistence of exploitative labour systems despite reforms, creating resentment among peasants.

Challenges of these movements:

• Localized and sporadic in nature, restricted to particular villages or issues.
• Unorganized and leaderless, lacking coordination to convert grievances into sustained revolt.
• No link with nationalist politics, so their impact remained confined and limited.

Though limited in scope and success, the land protests of Sirmour and Bhagal are important as early expressions of agrarian discontent in Himachal Pradesh. They exposed the exploitative structure of land revenue and begār and laid the foundation for the more organized Praja Mandal movements of the 20th century, which transformed peasant grievances into political struggles against princely autocracy.

4. ‘Incidents of stampedes can occur in numerous socio-cultural situations’. Elucidate.

Answer:

Introduction

Stampedes are sudden, uncontrolled surges of crowds that often result in injuries or loss of life. They can occur in a variety of socio-cultural settings—not just in religious gatherings—but in any situation where large numbers of people congregate under poor control. This answer explains how stampedes manifest in different contexts in India (with recent examples) and examines the underlying causes that make such tragedies possible.

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Contexts & Recent Indian Examples

1. Religious Gatherings / Pilgrimages
   • In the 2025 Prayag Maha Kumbh Mela, crowd crushes occurred at the confluence of rivers during the Amrit Snan ritual, reportedly claiming 30–40 lives and injuring many more.
   • In Shirgao, Goa, a stampede at the Sree Lairai Devi temple during a Hindu festival led to at least 6 deaths and dozens injured.
2. Festivals / Cultural Events
   • During the Rath Yatra festival in Puri (2025), a sudden surge among devotees watching the chariot procession caused suffocation and panic; 3 deaths and multiple hospitalizations were reported.
3. Sporting Celebrations / Victory Rallies
   • In Bengaluru (2025), after the Royal Challengers Bengaluru (RCB) won the IPL title, thousands of fans gathered outside the stadium for a felicitation event. A crowd crush led to 11 deaths and 56 injuries.
4. Political Rallies / Mass Mobilization
   • In Karur, Tamil Nadu (2025), a political rally by actor-turned-politician Vijay resulted in a stampede when huge numbers surged toward the stage. Reports suggest over 40 fatalities and many injuries.
5. Transportation Hubs / Travel Rush
   • On 15 February 2025, at the New Delhi railway station, a crowd crush on a footbridge (during the Kumbh festival rush) killed 18 people and injured others, after train delays and platform confusion led to overcrowding.
6. Large Religious Events Beyond Pilgrimages
   • In Hathras, Uttar Pradesh (2024), at the end of a satsang organized by a local preacher, a massive crowd attempted to leave the venue. Over 121 people died, many were injured, as exit paths were overwhelmed.
   • In 2024, during a mass religious gathering, the government suspended police and officials after a stampede claimed 121 lives, citing negligence and violation of crowd limits.

 Underlying Causes of Stampedes

1. Overcrowding and Unregulated Entry

• Large numbers often exceed permitted capacity (e.g., Hathras satsang, 2024, where over 2.5 lakh gathered against permission for 80,000).
• Lack of turnstiles, entry tickets, or regulated inflow creates unsafe density.

2. Poor Infrastructure and Physical Constraints

• Narrow passages, inadequate exits, weak barricades, absence of holding areas.
• Example: New Delhi Railway Station crush, 2025—footbridges and platforms could not handle the rush, leading to collapse.

3. Administrative Lapses and Negligence

• Permissions without safety audits, ignoring NDMA guidelines, lack of trained personnel.
• Example: Hathras (2024)—local officials suspended for overlooking safety violations.

4. Panic Triggers and Rumors

• Sudden loud noise, fire, dust storm, or false alarm of danger.
• Example: In Hathras, witnesses reported a dust storm and rumors that the preacher’s vehicle was stuck, triggering panic.

5. Delay and Mismanagement of Events

• Long waiting periods, late arrival of VIPs, lack of water and shade → people become restless.
• Example: Karur political rally, 2025—actor Vijay arrived after 6 hours in scorching heat, contributing to crowd impatience.

6. Psychological & Behavioral Factors

• Herd mentality: people push forward when others move, without assessing danger.
• “Fear of missing out” in religious rituals or darshan often leads to competitive rushing.

7. Weak Communication and Lack of Signage

• No clear announcements or signage for entry/exit.
• Absence of public address systems prevents quick control once panic starts.

8. Inadequate Emergency Preparedness

• Lack of medical posts, slow ambulance access, no evacuation drills.
• Example: RCB victory stampede in Bengaluru, 2025—rescue was delayed as ambulances were stuck outside the crowd area.

 Conclusion

Stampedes in India continue to occur across religious, cultural, political, sporting, and transport settings, as recent tragedies in Karur, New Delhi, Bengaluru, and Kumbh Mela show. They stem not from a single cause but from a toxic mix of inadequate infrastructure, poor planning, crowd mismanagement, panic, and administrative negligence. Addressing them requires holistic preparedness: stringent crowd-control norms, technological monitoring, training of event managers, emergency protocols, and accountability in authority. Only then can such recurring disasters be meaningfully reduced.

5. Elaborate the origin and mechanism of Indian monsoon.

Answer:

The word “monsoon” is derived from the Arabic word mausim which means “season” or “wind shift”. The term was used by Arab traders to describe the seasonal reversal of winds, particularly the winds over the Indian Ocean that brought heavy rainfall.

Origin and Mechanism of Indian Monsoon

1. Origin:
   • The Indian monsoon originates due to the seasonal reversal of winds caused by the differential heating and cooling of land and sea.
   • In summer, the Tibetan Plateau and Indian subcontinent heat up intensely, creating a low-pressure zone.
   • The Indian Ocean remains relatively cooler, developing a high-pressure zone, thus setting up a pressure gradient.
   • Moist air from the ocean is drawn towards the landmass, leading to monsoon circulation.
2. Mechanism:
   • Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) shifts northwards over India during summer, pulling the trade winds with it.
   • These southeast trade winds, after crossing the equator, get deflected by the Coriolis force and become southwest monsoon
   • They bifurcate into:
     • Arabian Sea Branch → strikes the Western Ghats, causing heavy rainfall.
     • Bay of Bengal Branch → moves towards northeast India and later spreads across the Indo-Gangetic plains.
   • The Tibetan Plateau acts as a heat source, enhancing uplift and intensifying monsoon currents.
   • The Jet Streams (particularly the Tropical Easterly Jet) guide and strengthen monsoon currents.
   • Break and Active Monsoon: The monsoon is not continuous. There are cycles of “active” periods (heavy rain for days) and “break” periods (dry spells when the monsoon trough shifts to the foothills of the Himalayas).
   • Retreat of the Monsoon (The Northeast Monsoon): By September-October, the sun moves south of the equator. The land starts cooling faster than the ocean. The low-pressure area over the land is replaced by a high-pressure area. The wind direction reverses, beginning the retreating monsoon or the North-East Monsoon. These dry winds pick up some moisture from the Bay of Bengal to bring rainfall to parts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Sri Lanka during October-November.

In conclusion, the Indian monsoon is a magnificent interplay of global and regional thermodynamics, making it the lifeline for the subcontinent’s agriculture and water security.

6. “Resource rich regions of India are poor in terms of development”. Examine.  

Answer:

Resource-rich regions in India, such as Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, parts of Madhya Pradesh, and the North-Eastern states, possess abundant coal, iron ore, bauxite, and other minerals. However, these regions are among the most socio-economically backward. This phenomenon is often called the “resource curse” or “paradox of plenty.”

Reasons for Underdevelopment in Resource-Rich Regions:

1. Colonial Legacy: Resource extraction during colonial times prioritized revenue generation over local development. Post-independence industrial projects also focused on raw material extraction, not regional prosperity.
2. Mono-Economic Dependence: Overdependence on mining leads to neglect of agriculture, manufacturing, and service sectors. Lack of economic diversification makes the local economy vulnerable.
3. Displacement and Social Unrest: These projects have led to massive displacement of tribal and rural communities, often without adequate rehabilitation. This historical injustice has fueled social discontent and is a primary cause of the Naxalite-Maoist insurgency in the region, further crippling development.
4. Governance Failure: Revenue from resources is often mismanaged due to corruption and a lack of visionary planning, failing to be invested in social infrastructure like education and healthcare.

However, the statement is not universally true. Several resource-rich regions in India have achieved significant development.

1. States with Diversified Economies: Gujarat (rich in petroleum and natural gas) and Maharashtra have successfully used resource revenue to build robust industrial and infrastructural bases. Their economies are diversified, reducing over-dependence on the primary sector.
2. Agriculturally Prosperous States: Punjab and Haryana, endowed with fertile soil and abundant water resources (a critical natural resource), became the epicenter of the Green Revolution and rank high in terms of agricultural productivity and per capita income.

In conclusion, the paradox of India’s resource-rich yet underdeveloped regions shows that resources alone cannot guarantee progress. With good governance, fair distribution, and sustainable management ends up inequality and leads to development.

7. Discuss the potentiality and present status of hydropower in Himachal Pradesh.

Answer:

Hydropower is the economic backbone of Himachal Pradesh, representing a vast natural asset. Himachal Pradesh, often called the “Power State of India,” is endowed with fast-flowing snow-fed rivers like the Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, and Chenab, making it one of the richest states in terms of hydropower potential.

1. Potentiality of Hydropower in Himachal Pradesh

Himachal Pradesh is endowed with an enormous hydropower potential, estimated by the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) at approximately 27,436 Megawatts (MW), which is about 25% of India’s total hydro potential. This immense potential stems from several geographical advantages:

2. Perennial River Systems:The state is drained by five major snow-fed rivers—the Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, and Yamuna—and their numerous tributaries, ensuring a consistent water flow throughout the year.

3. Topography:The extreme altitudinal variation (from 350 meters to over 6,000 meters) creates steep river gradients, resulting in high water velocity ideal for power generation, especially for run-of-the-river projects.

4. High Precipitation: The state receives significant rainfall and snowfall, which recharge these river systems.

This potential is not evenly distributed but is concentrated in specific river basins, with the Satluj basin alone accounting for over 50% of the state’s total potential.

 Present Status of Hydropower Development

The development of this potential has been considerable but incomplete.

1. Installed Capacity:As of now, the installed hydropower capacity in Himachal Pradesh is around 11,000 – 12,000 MW. This means the state has harnessed roughly 40-45% of its total identified potential. This has made HP a “power-surplus” state, contributing significantly to the Northern Grid.
2. Major Projects and Players:
   • Several large projects are operational, including Nathpa Jhakri (1500 MW) – India’s largest, Koldam (800 MW), and the Parvati-III (520 MW) project.
   • The development is led by central agencies like SJVNL and NHPC, the state’s HPSEB, and a significant number of private players.

3. Pipeline of Projects:A substantial capacity is under various stages of development—under construction, sanctioned, or under survey—indicating ongoing activity to tap the remaining potential.

The significant gap between the potential (27,436 MW) and the achieved capacity (~12,000 MW) highlights several critical challenges that define the present status:

• Environmental and Geological Concerns: The fragile Himalayan ecology is highly vulnerable. Projects face issues of deforestation, impact on aquatic life, and geological surprises during tunneling, leading to delays and cost overruns.
• Social Opposition: Displacement of local communities, inadequate rehabilitation, and perceived inequity in benefit-sharing have led to strong public agitations against several projects.
• Natural Disasters: The increasing frequency of extreme weather events, like the devastating 2023 floods, has damaged existing infrastructure and raised serious questions about the viability of projects in ecologically sensitive zones.
• Policy and Clearance Hurdles: Stringent environmental clearances and changing state policies (e.g., regarding royalty rates) have slowed down the allotment and execution of new projects.

Himachal Pradesh has tapped significant hydropower potential, but much remains untapped. The future lies in focusing on smaller sustainable projects, community inclusion, and climate-resilient infrastructure over mere capacity expansion.

8. To what extent mid-day meal has helped the children in fulfilling the Right to Education? Examine.

Answer

Introduction

The Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009 guarantees free and compulsory education to children aged 6–14 years. The Mid-Day Meal (MDM) Scheme, the world’s largest school feeding programme, has been a key intervention to ensure access, equity, and retention of children in schools. Examining its impact reveals its vital but partial role in fulfilling the objectives of RTE.

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Positive Contributions

1. Enrollment and Attendance
   • MDM has acted as an incentive for poor families to send children to school, particularly in rural and marginalized communities.
   • Studies show significant rise in enrollment of girls and SC/ST children after introduction of MDM.
2. Retention and Completion
   • By reducing absenteeism and dropouts, MDM contributes to RTE’s mandate of continuous schooling till 14 years.
3. Nutritional Security → Learning Outcomes
   • Improved nutrition enhances concentration and cognitive abilities, indirectly supporting better learning.
4. Equity and Social Cohesion
   • Common meals foster social integration across caste, class, and gender divides, aligning with RTE’s spirit of inclusiveness.
5. Women’s Empowerment
   • Scheme employs large numbers of women (often from disadvantaged groups) as cooks/helpers, linking social justice with education.

Limitations and Challenges

1. Quality and Hygiene Issues
   • Reports of contaminated or inadequate food undermine trust and discourage attendance in some cases.
2. Leakages and Corruption
   • Diversion of grains, irregular supply, and poor monitoring affect reliability of the scheme.
3. Learning Outcomes Not Ensured
   • While MDM improves access, the quality of education—teacher absenteeism, poor pedagogy—remains unaddressed.
4. Infrastructure Gaps
   • Many schools lack kitchens, storage, or clean water facilities, affecting safe delivery of meals.

 Extent of Contribution

• The scheme has been highly successful in bringing children to school and keeping them enrolled, a fundamental step in realizing RTE.
• However, it cannot by itself guarantee quality education and meaningful learning, which are also essential components of RTE.
• Thus, MDM is a necessary but not sufficient condition for fulfilling the RTE mandate.

 Conclusion

The Mid-Day Meal Scheme has played a transformative role in improving access, retention, and equity in education, making it one of the most effective tools for operationalizing the Right to Education. Yet, to fully realize RTE, the scheme must be complemented with reforms in teaching quality, infrastructure, and accountability mechanisms. Strengthening MDM alongside broader systemic reforms is essential to convert the promise of RTE into a substantive reality for every child.

9. Examine the role of legal remedies in solving the gender problems in India.

Introduction

India’s Constitution enshrines equality before law (Article 14) and prohibits discrimination on grounds of sex (Article 15). To operationalize these ideals, a range of legal remedies—constitutional provisions, legislations, and judicial interventions—have sought to address gender problems like discrimination, violence, and inequality. Examining their role shows both achievements and challenges.

Body

1. Constitutional and Fundamental Rights Remedies

• Article 14 & 15: Guarantee equality and prohibit discrimination on sex.
• Article 39(d) & 42 (DPSPs): Equal pay, maternity relief.
• Article 51A(e): Fundamental duty to renounce practices derogatory to women’s dignity.
• Writ petitions in High Courts/Supreme Court act as direct legal remedies for gender justice.

2. Legislative Measures

• Violence & Safety: Dowry Prohibition Act (1961), Domestic Violence Act (2005), Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act (2013), POSCO Act (2012).
• Workplace & Economic Rights: Equal Remuneration Act (1976), Maternity Benefit Act (1961, amended 2017).
• Social Justice: Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (2006), PCPNDT Act (1994) against sex-selective abortions.
• Representation: Reservation for women in PRIs (73rd & 74th Amendments); recently, the Women’s Reservation Bill, 2023 (33% in legislatures).

3. Judicial Activism & Case Laws

• Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997): Guidelines against workplace sexual harassment → led to 2013 Act.
• Shayara Bano v. Union of India (2017): Triple Talaq declared unconstitutional.
• Navtej Johar v. Union of India (2018): Decriminalized homosexuality (gender/sexual orientation justice).
• Joseph Shine v. Union of India (2018): Struck down adultery law as discriminatory.

4. Positive Role / Achievements

• Enhanced legal empowerment of women and marginalized genders.
• Increased reporting of crimes (NCRB data shows rising cases filed).
• Laws have created awareness and deterrence (e.g., POSH Committees in workplaces).
• Representation quotas in local bodies improved women’s political voice.

5. Limitations and Challenges

• Implementation gap: Poor monitoring, delays in courts.
• Patriarchal mindset: Laws alone cannot alter deep-rooted cultural norms.
• Misuse concerns: Some provisions (e.g., misuse claims in dowry or 498A IPC cases).
• Exclusion: Transgender and non-binary persons still face systemic gaps despite Transgender Persons Act, 2019.
• Urban-rural divide: Legal awareness and access to remedies remain limited for rural women.

Conclusion

Legal remedies in India have played a crucial role in addressing gender inequality—by criminalizing regressive practices, securing workplace rights, and empowering women in political and economic life. However, laws alone are not enough; their efficacy is constrained by implementation failures and entrenched patriarchy. A holistic approach combining legal reforms, education, awareness, and societal change is essential to ensure that gender justice becomes a lived reality.

• Himachal Pradesh is considered as Land of God (Dev Bhoomi). How this feeling among its people has affected the social and economic life of the people? Explain.

Answer:

Introduction

Himachal Pradesh, popularly known as Dev Bhoomi (Land of Gods), derives its identity from thousands of temples, shrines, monasteries and sacred peaks spread across the state. The deep religiosity and reverence for deities among its people has not only shaped their cultural ethos but has also significantly influenced the social fabric and economic activities of the region.

Impact on Social Life

1. Community Cohesion: Temples and deities serve as the focal point of village life. Local festivals like Kullu Dussehra, Shivratri of Mandi, Minjar fair of Chamba strengthen social bonds and collective identity.
2. Social Harmony and Values: Faith in deities fosters values of simplicity, devotion, mutual help and respect for nature. Sacred groves (dev van) are preserved due to religious sentiments.
3. Cultural Continuity: The institution of devta committees regulates community affairs, dispute resolution, and traditional governance in rural areas, blending religion with social order.
4. Conservation of Traditions: Folk music, dance forms (nati, karyala), fairs, and rituals associated with deities help preserve rich cultural heritage.

Impact on Economic Life

1. Pilgrimage and Religious Tourism: Major shrines like Jwalamukhi, Chintpurni, Chamunda, Naina Devi, Hadimba, Baijnath attract lakhs of pilgrims, generating livelihood through transport, hospitality, handicrafts, and allied services.
2. Temple Economy: Donations, offerings, and temple trusts circulate wealth locally, funding community welfare projects, education, and health facilities.
3. Employment Generation: Festivals and pilgrim circuits boost seasonal employment in food stalls, hotels, transport, and handicraft sales.
4. Environmental Protection as Livelihood: Sacred natural sites like lakes (Rewalsar, Prashar, Manimahesh) and mountains (Shrikhand Mahadev, Kinner Kailash) encourage eco-tourism while ensuring conservation.
5. Limitations: Excessive dependence on religious tourism may restrict diversification, and commercialization sometimes dilutes spiritual values.

Conclusion

The belief in Himachal Pradesh as Dev Bhoomi has been a double-edged sword—on one hand fostering unity, cultural preservation, and sustainable livelihoods through pilgrimage and eco-tourism, while on the other raising concerns of over-commercialization. Yet, it remains a powerful force that shapes the state’s collective identity, guiding its people’s social ethos and economic activities in unique ways.

Answer to Question No. 11 to 20 should not exceed 225 words in each case. Contents of the answers are more important than their length. Each question carries 12 marks.

• Explain the term ‘Evangelicalism’. What impact did it have on the policies of the East India Company Government?

Answers

Introduction

Evangelicalism was a Protestant religious reform movement that gained strength in Britain during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It emphasized personal piety, moral discipline, missionary activity, and the duty to reform society. Evangelical leaders like William Wilberforce and their allies in Parliament influenced the East India Company (EIC) to move from religious neutrality towards policies that promoted Christianity, education, and social reform in India.

Impact of Evangelicalism on East India Company Policies

1. Missionary Activities and Christianity Propagation

• The EIC initially avoided missionary activity. However, Evangelical lobbying led to the Charter Act of 1813, which legalized missionary work in India. Missionaries set up schools, printing presses, and distributed the Bible in Indian languages. Chaplains were appointed in the Company’s territories, and financial support was given to missionary societies for education and translation work.

2. Educational Reforms

• Evangelicals viewed English education as a tool for spreading Christian and moral values. Missionaries opened schools and colleges where Bible studies and Christian ethics were taught. This effort influenced the broader educational shift that culminated in Macaulay’s Minute (1835) and the promotion of English-medium education.

3. Social and Legal Reforms

• Evangelical ideas encouraged legislation against social practices such as Sati (abolished in 1829) and female infanticide. Importantly, the Hindu Law of Inheritance Act (1850) allowed Hindus who converted to Christianity to retain their rights of inheritance, thus removing a major legal barrier to conversion and indirectly promoting Christianity.

4. Colonial Justification

• Evangelicals portrayed British rule as a divine mission to “civilize” India, providing a moral justification for colonial expansion and intervention in social life.

Conclusion

Evangelicalism profoundly shaped EIC policies—legalizing missionary work, advancing English education, enacting social reforms, and passing laws like the Hindu Law of Inheritance (1850). These measures furthered Christianity’s spread in India but also stirred cultural resistance, leaving a lasting imprint on colonial governance

12. Examine critically the major Famines Commission during British Rule in India (1860- 1945 AD).

Answer:-

Introduction

Between 1860 and 1945, India witnessed several devastating famines under British rule. In response, the colonial government established multiple famine commissions to investigate causes and recommend measures. While these commissions identified administrative failures, they often overlooked deeper systemic issues contributing to famine mortality.

Main Body: Major Famine Commissions in Chronological Order

1. Smith Committee (1860–61)

• Context: After famine in the Delhi and Agra regions.
• Findings: Drought was identified as a primary cause.
• Recommendations: Improve revenue assessment and implement relief measures.

2. Campbell Commission (1866)

• Context: Following the Odisha, Bengal, Bihar, and Madras famine, which killed around 2 million.
• Findings: Criticized inadequate government relief.
• Recommendations: Strengthen administrative preparedness and relief systems.

3. Strachey Commission (1878)

• Context: In the aftermath of the 1876–78 famine (5+ million deaths).
• Findings: Government failed to prevent and mitigate famine.
• Recommendations: Establish famine codes and improve resource management.

4. Lyall Commission (1897)

• Context: After the 1896–97 famine.
• Findings: Recurrent famines had devastating effects.
• Recommendations: Promote irrigation and better agricultural practices.

5. MacDonnell Commission (1901)

• Context: Following the 1899–1900 famine.
• Findings: Emphasized early relief and proactive measures.
• Recommendations: Provide seed and cattle advances, sink wells, appoint Famine Commissioners.

6. Famine Inquiry Commission (1944)

• Context: In response to the Bengal famine of 1943 (1.5 million deaths).
• Findings: Administrative failures and wartime policies worsened famine.
• Recommendations: Reform food distribution and relief operations.

Conclusion

These commissions highlighted the immediate causes of famines and proposed relief measures, but largely ignored colonial policies and economic exploitation that exacerbated famine mortality. Their recurring establishment underscores the need for systemic reforms and accountable governance during British India.

• Highlights the formation, objectives and salient features of “Himalayan Hill States Sub- Regional Council.”

Answer:

The political awakening in the hill states of Himachal reached a new phase in the mid-1940s. Following the All-India Native State Parishad’s Conference in 1946, leaders from the hill states formed the Himalayan Hill Regional Council. Within this, the Himalayan Hill States Sub-Regional Council (HHSSRC) emerged as a more assertive forum (1946–48), seeking not just reforms but a complete end of princely administration in favour of people’s rule.

1. Formation

• 1946: The Himalayan Hill Regional Council was established after the Native State Parishad’s Conference.
• Soon, differences arose among members. Six leaders created the HHSSRC, not as a parallel body but as a component of the larger Regional Council, with a sharper agenda.
• Leadership:S. Parmar and Pandit Padam Dev
• Unlike the parent body, which still engaged with princely states, the HHSSRC pressed for removing princes from administration altogether, replacing them with people’s representatives.

2. Objectives

• To unify the fragmented hill princely states on the basis of common cultural and geographical identity.
• To promote democratic governance and civil liberties.
• To push beyond reform and end princely autocracy, asserting that rulers could no longer claim political legitimacy.
• To prepare the ground for integration with free India under popular leadership.

3. Salient Features

• Assertive Democratic Agenda: While the Regional Council sought gradual reform, the Sub-Regional Council adopted a radical stance for transferring power directly to the people.
• Grassroots Mobilization: It worked to involve Praja Mandals, local activists, and village-level leaders in collective action.
• Collective Leadership: Leaders like Swami Purna Nand (Mandi), Y.S. Parmar, and Pandit Padam Dev represented different princely states, ensuring wide participation.
• Platform of Unity: Brought together activists from multiple hill states under one umbrella, bridging local struggles into a regional movement.

4. Significance

• First Structured Political Alliance: For the first time, leaders across princely states coordinated to demand a unified democratic front.
• Challenge to Princes: It openly declared that princely rule had no place in the new political reality after 1947.
• Catalyst for Integration: Strengthened the case for merging small states into a single Himachal administrative unit, preparing ground for the formation of the Chief Commissioner’s Province of Himachal Pradesh in 1948.
• Legacy: The HHSSRC not only exposed the limitations of princely reforms but also carried forward the demand for self-rule and equality, which later evolved into the larger Praja Mandal and merger movements.

The Himalayan Hill States Sub-Regional Council played a decisive role in Himachal’s political transformation. While part of the broader Regional Council, it stood out for its  democratic vision, demanding the complete ouster of princely states from administration. In doing so, it accelerated the unification of hill states and laid the foundation for Himachal Pradesh’s eventual democratic integration with the Indian Union.

• Identify the flood -prone zones in India and suggest strategy for their management.

Answer:

Floods are one of the most recurrent natural hazards in India, affecting nearly 40 million hectares of land annually. They not only cause loss of life and property but also disrupt agriculture, infrastructure, and long-term development.

Flood-prone zones in India can be broadly identified as:

1. Ganga–Brahmaputra Basin: Covering Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal; most severely affected due to high monsoonal rainfall, siltation, and shifting river courses (e.g., Kosi, Brahmaputra).
2. North-West Rivers Basin: Punjab, Haryana, and parts of Rajasthan and Delhi face floods during intense monsoon discharge of rivers like Sutlej and Ghaggar.
3. Central and Deccan Plateau Rivers: Mahanadi, Godavari, and Krishna basins in Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh experience monsoon floods and dam-related inundation.
4. Western Coast & Kerala–Konkan Belt: Heavy rainfall causes flash floods and urban flooding, as seen in Kerala (2018) and Mumbai.
5. Himalayan & North-Eastern States: Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, and NE states face flash floods and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs).
6. Urban Centers: Cities like Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, and Delhi are increasingly prone due to unplanned urbanization and poor drainage.

Strategies for management:

1. Structural measures: construction of embankments, multipurpose dams, reservoirs, and improved drainage systems.
2. Non-structural measures: effective flood forecasting, early warning systems, floodplain zoning, and community preparedness.
3. Ecosystem-based solutions: catchment area treatment, afforestation, restoration of wetlands and floodplains to act as natural buffers.
4. Institutional and technological interventions: use of remote sensing, GIS mapping, and strengthening coordination between NDMA, SDRFs, and local governance institutions.
5. International cooperation: data-sharing agreements with upstream countries like Nepal, Bhutan, and China for better forecasting.

Floods in India reflect both natural vulnerabilities and human-induced factors. Therefore, the emphasis should shift from a narrow approach of “flood control” to a holistic approach of flood management, ensuring resilience through infrastructure, ecological safeguards, and community participation.

• Distinguish the geographical aspects of Malwa Plateau and Chhota Nagpur plateau of. peninsular India.

Answer:

The Malwa Plateau and the Chhota Nagpur Plateau are two distinct physiographic regions of the Peninsular Indian Plateau. While both are ancient landmasses composed of hard crystalline rocks, they exhibit significant geographical differences:

In summary, the Malwa Plateau is a fertile, agriculturally dominant lava plateau with a relatively dry climate, while the Chhota Nagpur Plateau is a higher, mineral-rich, rugged region with a humid climate and a forest-covered landscape. Their geographical aspects shape their contrasting economic identities—one as an agrarian heartland and the other as a mineral and industrial base.

• Analyze the role of interstate migration in regional disparity in India.

Answer:

Interstate migration in India is not merely a demographic movement but a powerful geographical process that has a complex, cyclical relationship with regional disparity. While migration is initially a response to existing economic imbalances, it subsequently plays a critical role in perpetuating and even widening those very disparities, creating a vicious cycle.

1. Migration as a Consequence of Pre-existing Disparity

• The direction of migration flows clearly mirrors the map of development in India. There is a net out-migration from economically less developed states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha towards highly developed states like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Karnataka.
• This movement is driven by “push” factors (agrarian distress, lack of jobs, low wages) in the former and “pull” factors (industrial and service sector opportunities, higher wages, better infrastructure) in the latter. Thus, the initial disparity is the fundamental cause of migration.

2. Migration as a Reinforcing Agent of Disparity (The Core Analysis)

The act of migration itself deepens the developmental gap through several mechanisms:

1. a) For the Sending (Backward) States:

• Brain Drain: Migration is often selective, with the most educated, skilled, and ambitious youth leaving. This leads to a depletion of human capital in the sending states, crippling their potential for future development. The state invests in their education but loses their productive contributions.
• Fiscal and Demographic Strain: The out-migration of the working-age population can leave behind an aging population and a smaller tax base, limiting the state’s capacity to invest in social infrastructure like health and education.

1. b) For the Receiving (Developed) States:

• Accelerated Growth: The influx of migrant labour provides a steady, low-cost workforce for industries, construction, and services in states like Maharashtra and Gujarat. This fuels their economic growth, further consolidating their advanced status and widening the economic gap with the sending states.
• Strained Infrastructure: While beneficial for industry, mass migration creates immense pressure on housing, water, sanitation, and transport in cities like Mumbai, Bengaluru, and Delhi, leading to overcrowding and social tensions.

3. The Limited Corrective Role of Remittances

• While migrants send back remittances, which provide a crucial lifeline to households in the sending states, this inflow often fuels consumption rather than productive investment. It rarely translates into large-scale industrial or infrastructural development that can structurally transform the regional economy of the source state. Therefore, remittances alleviate poverty at the micro level but do not fundamentally alter the macro-level regional disparity.

In conclusion,

• Interstate migration in India acts as a double-edged sword: it accelerates growth in destination states while perpetuating underdevelopment in source regions. To reduce regional disparity, policy interventions like balanced regional development, skill enhancement in source states, and investment in infrastructure are crucial.

• Explain the relevance of green tourism for sustainable development of environment in Himachal Pradesh.

Answer:

Green tourism, also known as eco-tourism, is a philosophy of travel that minimizes environmental impact, promotes conservation, and involves local communities. For Himachal Pradesh, a state with an incredibly fragile Himalayan ecosystem already straining under the pressures of mass tourism, the relevance of green tourism to its sustainable environmental development is profound and multi-faceted.

The relevance of green tourism for sustainable development of environment in Himachal Pradesh can be explained as follows:

1. Waste Minimization:It promotes the principles of “Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.” By encouraging tourists to avoid single-use plastics and by establishing composting units in homestays (e.g., in villages of Tirthan Valley), it directly reduces the solid waste burden on landfills and natural landscapes.
2. Resource Conservation:Green accommodations use practices like rainwater harvesting, solar energy, and water-efficient fixtures. This is critically relevant in a state where water sources are depleting, and energy demand is high. It reduces the strain on local resources. g.PM Surya Ghar muft Bijli Yojana,Himurja.
3. Pressure Management:By advocating for low-impact activities (trekking, bird-watching) and limiting tourist numbers in sensitive areas, it helps preserve the ecological carrying capacity. The controlled tourism in the Great Himalayan National Park (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) is a prime example of how green tourism protects biodiversity.
4. Incentive for Conservation:When local communities earn their livelihood through green tourism (as guides, homestay owners, organic farmers), they have a direct economic stake in preserving the forests, clean rivers, and scenic beauty that attract tourists. This creates grassroots-level environmental guardianship, which is more effective than top-down regulations.
5. Funding Conservation:Revenue generated from entry fees to eco-sensitive zones can be reinvested into conservation efforts, such as anti-poaching patrols and habitat restoration.
6. Reducing Carbon Footprint and Environmental Impact: It promotes low-impact accommodations, trekking, cycling, and responsible travel, minimizing pollution and habitat disruption. g. Gulaba village controlling number of vehicle permits for Rohtang Pass, regulating diesel/petrol vehicles, improving sanitation and waste management infrastructure.

In conclusion,

Green tourism in Himachal Pradesh is not merely an economic opportunity but a tool for sustainable environmental management. By integrating conservation, community welfare, and responsible tourism practices, it ensures that tourism development does not compromise ecological integrity, making it a key component of sustainable development in the state.

• Discuss in detail the schemes and strategies for women empowerment in India.

Answer:

Introduction

Women constitute nearly half of India’s population, yet have historically faced socio-economic and political marginalization. The Constitution ensures equality (Art. 14, 15, 16) and empowers the State to take affirmative action. Over the years, the Government of India has launched a range of schemes and strategies to address gender disparities and foster holistic women empowerment.

Body

1. Social Empowerment

• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (2015) – addresses declining child sex ratio and promotes girl child education.
• One-Stop Centres (Sakhi Centres) – provide integrated support to women facing violence.
• Mahila Police Volunteers Scheme – to bridge gap between police and community.
• Swadhar Greh & Ujjawala Schemes – for women in difficult circumstances and for prevention of trafficking.
• POSHAN Abhiyaan (2018) – aims at improving nutrition for adolescent girls and pregnant women.

2. Economic Empowerment

• Self-Help Groups (SHGs) under DAY-NRLM – mobilize women into collectives for microfinance and entrepreneurship.
• Stand Up India Scheme (2016) – facilitates bank loans for women entrepreneurs.
• Mudra Yojana (2015) – collateral-free loans, major share accessed by women.
• Mahila e-Haat – digital platform for women entrepreneurs to market products.
• STEP (Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women) – skills and employment training.

3. Health and Nutrition

• Janani Suraksha Yojana (2005) – promotes institutional deliveries and reduces maternal mortality.
• Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (2017) – maternity benefit of ₹5000 for wage loss compensation.
• Mission Shakti (2021) – umbrella scheme merging women’s safety and empowerment interventions.
• Menstrual Hygiene Scheme – ensures awareness and distribution of sanitary products in rural areas.

4. Educational Empowerment

• Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) – residential schools for girls from disadvantaged groups.
• Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan – emphasizes girls’ education through free uniforms, hostels, transport facilities.
• National Scheme of Incentive to Girls for Secondary Education (NSIGSE) – cash incentives to promote secondary schooling.

5. Political Empowerment

• 73rd & 74th Constitutional Amendments (1992) – reserved 33% seats in Panchayati Raj Institutions for women (some states extended to 50%).
• Women’s Reservation Bill, 2023 – proposes 33% reservation for women in Parliament and State Assemblies (awaiting implementation post-delimitation).

6. Digital & Technological Empowerment

• Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (DISHA) and PMGDISHA – digital literacy training for rural women.
• STEM initiatives like Vigyan Jyoti – encourage girls to pursue science and technology fields.
• Safe City Projects under Nirbhaya Fund – use technology for women’s safety in urban spaces.

7. Strategies for Women Empowerment

• Gender Budgeting – mainstreaming women’s needs into budgetary allocations.
• Skill India Mission with gender focus – ensuring women benefit from vocational training.
• Awareness Campaigns – such as “Save the Girl Child”, legal literacy drives.
• Public–Private Partnerships – collaborations for microcredit, digital skilling, and safe workplaces.
• Judicial Strategies – fast-track courts for gender-based violence cases, Supreme Court activism on gender rights.

Conclusion

India’s multi-pronged approach—through schemes, policies, and strategies—has significantly advanced women’s education, health, economic independence, and political participation. Yet, challenges remain: patriarchal attitudes, implementation gaps, and regional disparities. A convergence-based strategy, integrating education, skill training, legal rights, digital inclusion, and attitudinal change, is essential to achieve true gender equality and harness women’s potential for national development.

• Highlight the core values in good governance. Also discuss the factors which act as hinderance in the implementation of core values in India.

Answer:

Introduction

Good governance refers to governance that is effective, accountable, participatory, transparent, and just, ensuring that the State works for the welfare of all. The World Bank and UNDP have identified principles of good governance that align with India’s constitutional ethos of justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity.

Body

A. Core Values in Good Governance

1. Transparency – openness in decision-making, information accessibility (e.g., RTI Act, 2005).
2. Accountability – answerability of institutions and officials to the people (CAG, parliamentary committees).
3. Rule of Law – supremacy of law, equality before law, impartial justice.
4. Participation & Inclusiveness – citizen engagement, empowerment of marginalized sections (Panchayati Raj, women’s reservation).
5. Effectiveness & Efficiency – optimum use of resources, timely delivery of services (Digital India, DBT).
6. Equity & Justice – ensuring fairness, protecting vulnerable groups (affirmative action policies, social welfare schemes).
7. Consensus Orientation – mediation of different interests to reach broad agreement on policies.
8. Responsiveness – institutions serving all stakeholders within reasonable timeframes (e.g., citizen charters).

B. Hindrances in India

1. Corruption & Lack of Integrity – leakages in welfare schemes, crony capitalism.
2. Bureaucratic Inertia – rigid red-tapism, excessive procedural delays.
3. Weak Institutional Capacity – understaffed judiciary, inadequate local government resources.
4. Political Interference & Populism – short-term electoral gains undermine long-term governance reforms.
5. Digital Divide – e-governance initiatives bypass those without digital access, especially in rural areas.
6. Social Inequalities – caste, gender, and regional divides hinder inclusiveness.
7. Judicial Delays – slow grievance redressal reduces faith in rule of law.
8. Implementation Gaps – strong laws and policies (e.g., RTI, Lokpal) often poorly executed due to lack of monitoring.

Example: Despite RTI ensuring transparency, harassment of RTI activists and bureaucratic resistance dilute its effectiveness. Similarly, DBT schemes face exclusion errors due to Aadhaar-linked authentication failures.

Conclusion

Good governance is the foundation of democratic legitimacy and sustainable development. India has institutional frameworks promoting transparency, accountability, and participation, but their full realization is obstructed by corruption, institutional weakness, and socio-economic inequalities. To overcome these, reforms must focus on strengthening institutions, empowering citizens, leveraging technology inclusively, and nurturing an ethical political-administrative culture. Only then can governance truly reflect its core values.

2. Explain the contribution of Tribal population in socio-economic development of Himachal

Answer:

Himachal Pradesh has 5.7% tribal population (2011 Census), mainly concentrated in Lahaul-Spiti, Kinnaur, and parts of Chamba (Pangi & Bharmour). Despite geographical isolation, harsh climate, and limited connectivity, tribal communities have played a significant role in shaping the state’s socio-economic and cultural landscape.

1. Agriculture and Horticulture

• Tribal regions are known for high-value cash crops like peas, potatoes, rajmah, and apples.
• Kinnauri apples, dry fruits, and chilgoza pine nuts contribute significantly to the state’s horticulture economy.
• Adoption of organic and sustainable farming practices by tribals has promoted eco-friendly agriculture.

2. Animal Husbandry and Pastoral Economy

• Tribal people like Gaddis, Gujjars, and Bhotiyas depend on sheep, goats, yaks, and cattle rearing.
• Wool, pashmina, and milk products contribute to handloom industry and dairy economy.
• Transhumance (seasonal migration with herds) maintains the ecological balance in high-altitude pastures.

3. Handicrafts and Traditional Industries

• Renowned for Kinnauri shawls, thangkas, wood carvings, metal craft, and jewellery, which have both cultural and commercial value.
• These crafts promote rural employment, women empowerment, and tourism-based livelihoods.

4. Tourism and Cultural Heritage

• Tribal belts attract eco-tourists, adventure tourists, and cultural enthusiasts.
• Festivals like Phulaich (Kinnaur), Halda (Lahaul), Minjar (Chamba) and unique Buddhist monasteries enhance cultural tourism.
• Homestay culture and adventure activities (trekking, mountaineering) are major sources of income.

5. Contribution to State Revenue and Economy

• Tribal produce (apples, wool, handicrafts) contributes to exports and state revenue.
• Hydropower projects in tribal areas (e.g., Kinnaur’s Satluj basin projects) supply electricity and generate income.

6. Preservation of Environment and Traditional Knowledge

• Tribal practices emphasize forest conservation, herbal medicine, and sustainable living.
• Sacred groves and customary laws protect biodiversity and ensure ecological balance in fragile Himalayan ecosystems.

Challenges

• Despite contributions, tribal areas face inadequate infrastructure, low literacy, health issues, and marginalization.
• Migration of youth to urban areas is affecting traditional livelihoods.

Conclusion

The tribal communities of Himachal Pradesh are not only custodians of cultural heritage and biodiversity but also vital contributors to the state’s horticultural, pastoral, tourism, and handicraft economy. Inclusive policies focusing on education, connectivity, and sustainable development are crucial to integrate them fully into the mainstream while preserving their unique identity.