Answer to Question No. 1 to 10 should not exceed 150 words in each case. Contents of the answers are more important than their length. Each question carries 08 marks.

1. Describe about the major provisions of reservations for the ‘Economically Weaker Sections (EWS)’.

Answer:

Introduction

The 103rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2019 introduced reservations for the Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) of society in education and public employment. This marked the first time reservations in India were extended solely on economic criteria, distinct from caste or social backwardness.

Body – Major Provisions of EWS Reservation

1. Constitutional Backing
   • Inserted Articles 15(6) and 16(6):
     • Article 15(6) → up to 10% reservation in admission to educational institutions, including private unaided institutions (except minority institutions under Article 30).
     • Article 16(6) → up to 10% reservation in initial recruitment for government posts.

2. Coverage
   • Applies to general category candidates who are not covered under SC, ST, and OBC reservations.
3. Eligibility Criteria (as per DoPT guidelines, 2019)
   • Annual family income below ₹8 lakh.
   • Agricultural land ≤ 5 acres.
   • Residential flat ≤ 1000 sq. ft.
   • Residential plot ≤ 100 sq. yards in notified municipalities or ≤ 200 sq. yards in non-notified areas.
4. Reservation Limit
   • The 10% quota is provided in addition to existing 49.5% reservations for SCs, STs, and OBCs.
   • The Supreme Court in Janhit Abhiyan v. Union of India (2022) upheld its constitutional validity, allowing total reservations to exceed 50% in this case.
5. Institutions Covered
   • Applies to central government jobs and educational institutions.
   • States have been framing their own rules for EWS reservations in line with the amendment.

Conclusion

EWS reservation seeks to address economic disadvantage across communities by extending affirmative action beyond caste lines. With constitutional sanction and judicial approval, it represents a significant shift in India’s reservation policy, though its effectiveness depends on transparent implementation and regular review of eligibility criteria.

2. Describe about the power and position of Election Commission of India.

Answer:

Introduction

The Election Commission of India (ECI) is a constitutional body established under Article 324 of the Indian Constitution to direct, control, and supervise free and fair elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice-President.

Body

Composition & Position

• Article 324(2): Commission consists of the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and such number of other Election Commissioners as the President may determine.
• Since 1993, it is a multi-member body (CEC + 2 ECs).
• Tenure & Service Conditions: Determined by the President, but independence is protected.
• Removal: CEC can only be removed like a Supreme Court judge (Article 324(5)), ensuring autonomy.

Powers of the Election Commission

1. Superintendence and Control
   • Article 324(1): Vests in ECI the power of superintendence, direction, and control of elections to Parliament, State legislatures, and Presidential/Vice-Presidential offices.
2. Preparation of Electoral Rolls
   • Supervises electoral rolls under Article 324(1) and Representation of People Acts (1950 & 1951).
3. Recognition of Political Parties
   • Under powers delegated by Article 324, ECI recognizes parties, allots symbols, and resolves disputes.
4. Model Code of Conduct (MCC)
   • Though not backed by a specific Article, enforced using Article 324 residuary powers.
5. Advisory Role
   • Article 103: Advises President on disqualification of MPs.
   • Article 192: Advises Governor on disqualification of MLAs.
6. Quasi-Judicial Powers
   • Decides on party splits/mergers and internal disputes under its plenary powers (Article 324).
7. Administrative Powers
   • Can requisition staff/security forces from Union/State governments for election duties (Article 324(6)).

Position in Indian Democracy

• Guardian of electoral democracy with wide powers under Article 324.
• Considered one of the most powerful election authorities globally.
• But limitations exist: dependence on executive for appointments, finances, and implementation.

Conclusion

The Election Commission of India, empowered by Article 324 and allied provisions, plays a decisive role in safeguarding free and fair elections. While its constitutional design ensures independence, reforms in appointment process (collegium system), financial autonomy, and enforcement powers are needed to further strengthen its position as the custodian of Indian democracy.

3. What do you understand by ‘Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojna’?

Answer:

Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB-PMJAY) is a flagship health insurance scheme launched by the Government of India in 2018. It aims to provide free and cashless healthcare services to economically vulnerable families. The scheme covers over 10 crore poor and vulnerable families, offering a health coverage of up to ₹5 lakh per family per year for secondary and tertiary care hospitalization across public and empanelled private hospitals in India.

AB PM-JAY represents a significant stride towards Universal Health Coverage in India. By providing financial protection and expanding access to quality healthcare, it aims to safeguard vulnerable populations from impoverishing health expenditures, thereby strengthening the nation’s social security net.

4. Discuss the role of Deputy Commissioner in Rural Development.

Answer:

Introduction

The Deputy Commissioner (DC), also known as the District Collector, is the chief executive officer of the district. As the key representative of the State Government, the DC plays a pivotal role in implementing rural development programmes, acting as the link between policy formulation at the State/National level and grassroots execution.

Body

1. Planning and Coordination

• Prepares and monitors the District Development Plan integrating state and central schemes.
• Coordinates between line departments (rural development, agriculture, health, education, PWD, etc.) and Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).

2. Implementation of Schemes

• MGNREGA: Ensures work generation, timely wage payment, and monitoring of assets.
• Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY): Oversees rural connectivity projects.
• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana–Gramin (PMAY-G): Supervises beneficiary selection, fund allocation, and construction quality.
• National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM): Promotes Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and women empowerment.
• Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM-Gramin): Coordinates sanitation drives and ODF (open defecation free) verification.
• Health & Nutrition Schemes: Coordinates ICDS, Poshan Abhiyaan, and health outreach in rural areas.

3. Monitoring & Supervision

• Chairs District Rural Development Agency (DRDA).
• Ensures convergence of rural development schemes with agriculture, education, and employment initiatives.
• Reviews progress through periodic inspections, social audits, and grievance redressal.

4. Resource Mobilization & Crisis Management

• Mobilizes funds, ensures effective utilization, and prevents leakages.
• Leads disaster relief and rehabilitation in rural areas (floods, droughts, pandemics).

5. Link with PRIs and Community Participation

• Acts as a guide and supervisor to Panchayats.
• Facilitates decentralization while ensuring accountability and compliance with state/national policies.

Challenges in Role

• Over-centralization: Excessive burden reduces effectiveness.
• Political Interference: Pressures in beneficiary selection and fund allocation.
• Resource Gaps: Inadequate staff and infrastructure in rural departments.
• Overlapping Jurisdictions: Conflicts with line departments and elected PRI representatives.
• Monitoring Issues: Leakages, corruption, and weak grievance redressal.

Conclusion

The Deputy Commissioner remains the linchpin of rural development administration in India, ensuring last-mile delivery of welfare schemes. While the office has contributed significantly to rural transformation, strengthening institutional capacity, empowering PRIs, digital monitoring, and reducing bureaucratic overload are essential for making rural development more participatory and effective.

5. Discuss the composition and functions of ‘National Commission for Women’ in India.

Answer:

Introduction

The National Commission for Women (NCW) was established in 1992 under the National Commission for Women Act, 1990 as a statutory body to safeguard and promote the rights of women in India. It acts as the apex national-level advisory body on policy matters affecting women.

Composition

• Chairperson → Nominated by the Central Government, usually an eminent woman committed to women’s causes.
• Five Members → Nominated by the Central Government from varied fields (law, social work, education, women’s rights, etc.). At least one member must be from SC/ST category.
• Member-Secretary → To be an expert in management or an officer with administrative experience.
• Appointed for a term of 3 years.

Functions of NCW

1. Review of Constitutional and Legal Safeguards
   • Examines existing laws relating to women and recommends amendments.
   • Example: Recommendations on laws like Domestic Violence Act, 2005, Sexual Harassment at Workplace Act, 2013.
2. Investigation and Monitoring
   • Inquires into complaints and takes suo motu notice of issues relating to women’s rights violation.
3. Advisory Role
   • Advises government on policies for women’s empowerment and gender justice.
4. Legal Assistance and Support
   • Provides legal aid to women, supports victims in court cases, and funds litigation involving mass grievances.
5. Research and Awareness
   • Undertakes studies, promotional research, and public awareness campaigns on women’s rights.
6. Coordination with NGOs and State Commissions
   • Works with civil society to strengthen implementation of schemes.
7. Quasi-Judicial Powers
   • Has powers of a civil court in summoning, requiring documents, and examining witnesses during inquiries.

Analysis

• Achievements: Enhanced awareness of women’s rights, recommended key reforms, highlighted issues like trafficking and workplace harassment.
• Limitations: Advisory body with no binding powers, lacks financial autonomy, often criticized for inadequate enforcement.

Conclusion

The National Commission for Women plays a vital role in protecting women’s rights and shaping gender-sensitive legislation in India. Strengthening its powers, ensuring timely follow-up on recommendations, and increasing coordination with state and local bodies are essential to make it a more effective guardian of women’s empowerment.

6. Describe the ‘Gujral Doctrine’ as India’s policy towards its neighbours.

Answer:

• The ‘Gujral Doctrine’ was a landmark framework for India’s foreign policy towards its immediate neighbours, articulated by K. Gujral in the mid-1990s.
• It was born from the context of the post-Cold War era and India’s economic liberalization, which necessitated a peaceful and stable South Asian region for mutual growth and development.

Core Principles of the Doctrine

1. Non-Reciprocal Assistance to Neighbours: With neighbours like Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, India would not ask for reciprocity but would give and accommodate what it could in good faith and trust.
2. No Use of Territory Against Others: No South Asian country would allow its territory to be used against the interest of another country in the region.
3. Non-Interference in Internal Affairs: None would interfere in the internal affairs of another.
4. Respect for Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity: All countries must respect each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
5. Peaceful Resolution of Disputes: All disputes would be settled through peaceful bilateral negotiations.

Key Features and Examples:

1. Non-Reciprocity:This was the doctrine’s cornerstone. It recognized that India, as the largest regional power, must be generous and unilateral in its gestures to build trust and dispel the image of a “big brother.”
2. Objective:The primary aim was to break the cycle of mistrust and hostility, thereby strengthening regional cooperation through the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).
3. Application:This policy was instrumental in resolving long-standing issues, such as the signing of the Mahakali River Treaty with Nepal (1996) and the 30-year Ganges Water Sharing Treaty with Bangladesh (1996).

In essence, the Gujral Doctrine represented a strategic shift from a stance of suspicion to one of benevolent leadership, aiming to secure India’s periphery through generosity and mutual respect rather than pure realpolitik.

7. Describe about the impact of ‘Strategic Partnership’ on India’s foreign policy.

Answer:

Introduction

The concept of Strategic Partnership emerged in India’s foreign policy in the post-Cold War era, especially after the 1990s, as India sought to build multi-dimensional ties with major powers and regional actors. It implies long-term cooperation across political, defence, economic, and technological domains, going beyond transactional relations.

Impact on India’s Foreign Policy

1. Diversification of Relations
   • Enabled India to move from a bipolar Cold War alignment to a multi-polar engagement strategy.
   • Partnerships with the USA, Russia, EU, Japan, ASEAN, and Gulf countries reduced overdependence on any single power.
2. Defence and Security Cooperation
   • Facilitated access to advanced military technology (e.g., BrahMos with Russia, defence deals with USA, Rafale from France).
   • Enhanced maritime cooperation in the Indo-Pacific (e.g., Quad with USA, Japan, Australia).
3. Economic and Trade Linkages
   • Deepened energy security through ties with Gulf nations and Central Asia.
   • Expanded investment and trade partnerships, boosting India’s global economic integration.
4. Strategic Autonomy Reinforced
   • India balanced relations with rival powers (e.g., US–Russia, Iran–Saudi Arabia, Israel–Palestine).
   • Strengthened India’s position as an independent pole in global politics.
5. Soft Power and Global Image
   • Strategic Partnerships enhanced India’s credibility as a responsible power.
   • Collaborations in education, technology, and climate change raised India’s diplomatic profile.
6. Institutionalization of Foreign Policy
   • Introduced mechanisms like annual summits, 2+2 dialogues, and joint working groups.
   • Shifted India’s diplomacy from reactive to proactive and structured.

Conclusion

Strategic Partnerships have transformed India’s foreign policy from non-alignment and limited engagement into one of multi-engagement and global leadership. They reinforce India’s pursuit of strategic autonomy while simultaneously enabling it to shape regional and global governance.

8. Explain about India’s cultural Diplomacy policy.

Answer:

• India’s cultural diplomacy is a strategic use of its rich cultural heritage as a tool of “soft power” to build influence, strengthen bilateral ties, and project a positive and modern image globally.
• Orchestrated primarily by the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), the policy leverages various cultural assets to achieve foreign policy objectives.

Key Pillars and Initiatives include:

1. Institutional Framework:The ICCR is the nodal agency, establishing cultural centres abroad, offering scholarships to foreign students, and sending Indian art troupes on global tours to foster people-to-people connections.
2. Promotion of Yoga & Wellness:The UN declaration of International Day of Yoga (21st June) is a landmark success of this policy, branding India as a beacon of holistic living and spiritual wisdom.
3. Cinema & Arts:Bollywood films act as a powerful medium to popularize Indian narratives and values. Festivals of India abroad and the promotion of classical dance forms like Bharatanatyam serve a similar purpose.
4. Leveraging the Diaspora:The large and influential Indian diaspora acts as cultural ambassadors, and events like Pravasi Bharatiya Divas engage them to promote India’s interests abroad.
5. Heritage & Archaeology:Initiatives like Project Mausam aim to rediscover historical cultural links with Indian Ocean countries, strengthening contemporary maritime ties.

In essence, India’s cultural diplomacy moves beyond traditional state-to-state engagement. It aims to create a reservoir of goodwill, which facilitates economic partnerships, counters negative perceptions, and positions India as a responsible and compelling global power with a unique civilizational ethos.

9. Why Brahmin and Rajput castes play dominant role in the politics of Himachal Pradesh?

Answer:

Introduction
Himachal Pradesh, though often described as a socially homogeneous state, reflects distinct caste dynamics. Among these, Brahmins and Rajputs have historically played a dominant role in the state’s politics due to demographic strength, historical prestige, and political mobilisation.

1. Demographic Strength

• Rajputs: Constitute the largest caste group in Himachal (approx. 30–35%).
• Brahmins: Form the second major caste bloc (around 20%).
• Their sheer numbers ensure electoral weightage in most constituencies.

2. Historical Legacy

• Rajputs were traditional rulers of princely states in the region, giving them prestige, land control, and political legitimacy.
• Brahmins, as custodians of ritual and education, commanded social influence which translated into political leadership.

3. Political Representation

• Out of 13 Chief Ministers since statehood,most have been Rajputs (Shanta Kumar, Prem Kumar Dhumal, Jairam Thakur) or Brahmins (e.g. Shanta kumar ) Political parties consciously field candidates from these communities to maximise winnability.

4. Organisational Networks

• Both communities have strong socio-religious networks (temple committees, educational institutions) which help in mobilisation during elections.

5. Caste-Class Linkages

• Rajputs, as landowners, dominate rural agrarian politics.
• Brahmins, being educated and service-oriented, influence bureaucracy, academia, and media—creating political leverage.

7. Electoral Behaviour

• Both communities are politically active, with high voter turnout and alignment with major parties (Congress & BJP).
• Smaller caste groups (Scheduled Castes, OBCs) often get fragmented, while Brahmins and Rajputs consolidate votes effectively.

8. Examples

• Virbhadra Singh (Congress), a Rajput leader from Rampur, remained CM for 6 terms.
• Prem Kumar Dhumal (BJP), Rajput leader, twice served as theChief Minister of Himachal Pradesh, from March 1998 to March 2003 and again from 1 January 2008 to 25 December 2012.
• Shanta Kumar (Brahmin), He became the Chief Minister of Himachal Pradesh in 1977. He held the post till 1980 and came back to head the Government again in 1990 and stayed till 1992.

Conclusion
The dominance of Brahmins and Rajputs in Himachal Pradesh politics is a product of their numerical strength, historical authority, and organisational capacity. Although caste politics is less overt compared to other states, these two groups continue to define leadership patterns and electoral outcomes, making them central to the political fabric of Himachal.

• “The Himachal Pradesh Public Services Guarantee Act, 2011 is a landmark legislation aimed at ensuring timely delivery of public services in the State.” Comment.

Understanding the Keyword

·         Comment: This directive requires you to present a reasoned judgment on the given statement. You must analyze and evaluate the Act’s features and impact to justify why it can be considered “landmark,” rather than simply describing its provisions.

Scope

• Defining ‘Landmark’:Explain what makes the Act transformative (e.g., shifting service delivery from a favour to a legal right).
• Core Mechanisms:Detail the key features that enable its success—time-bound delivery, designated officers, a penalty clause, and a multi-stage appellate system.
• Tangible Impact:Assess its outcomes, such as enhanced transparency, reduced corruption, and citizen empowerment.
• Enduring Significance:Mention its role as a model for other states and its strengthening through subsequent amendments.

Things to Avoid

• Merely Describing the Act:Do not just list the Act’s sections or services covered. The focus must be on analysis and evaluation.
• Ignoring the ‘Landmark’ Aspect:Failing to explain its transformative nature (e.g., rights-based approach, accountability) would make the answer incomplete.
• Providing a One-Sided View:While highlighting successes, briefly acknowledge implementation challenges (e.g., awareness gaps) to demonstrate critical thinking, without undermining its overall significance.
• Using Vague Generalizations:Support claims with specific features or outcomes (e.g., the penalty clause, the 2019 Validation Act) to substantiate the argument.

Answer:

The Himachal Pradesh Public Services Guarantee Act (HPPSGA), 2011 represents a milestone towards ensuring transparent and accountable governance through time-bound delivery of public services, embodying the principles of citizen-centric administration and good governance.

Key Features of the Act

• Service Coverage: The Act encompasses 119 servicesacross 20 departments, ensuring comprehensive coverage of essential public services like issuing certificates, licenses, and social security benefits.
• Time-bound Delivery: Establishes specific timeframes for service delivery, promoting efficiency and reducing bureaucratic delays.
• Accountability Mechanism: Implements a robust system for holding public servants accountable through disciplinary actions and penalties for service delivery failures.
• Appellate Authority: Creates a multi-tier grievance redressal system allowing citizens to appeal against service delivery delays or denials.

Implementation and Impact

• Digital Integration: The recent initiative to introduce e-governance servicesacross 60 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) has enhanced service accessibility and transparency.
• Legal Validation: The HPPSGA Amendment and Validation Act, 2019strengthened the legal framework by validating actions taken since September 24, 2011.
• Citizen Empowerment: Enables citizens to demand services as a right rather than viewing them as administrative favors.

Challenges and Way Forward

• Awareness Generation: Need for extensive public awareness campaigns about available services and citizen rights.
• Capacity Building: Regular training of government officials to improve service delivery efficiency.
• Technology Integration: Enhanced use of digital platforms for service delivery and monitoring.

The HPPSGA 2011 has emerged as a transformative legislation fostering administrative accountability and citizen empowerment. With continued focus on digital integration and capacity building, it serves as a model for other states in implementing service guarantee legislations, ultimately contributing to the broader goal of achieving minimum government, maximum governance.

Answer to Question No. 11 to 20 should not exceed 225 words in each case. Contents of the answers are more important than their length. Each question carries 12 marks.

• Critically examine the powers and position of Governors in the States in the light of recent judgment of Hon’ble Supreme Court of India on the writ petition by the State of Tamil Nadu.

Answer:

Introduction

The Governor is the constitutional head of a State under Article 153, vested with executive powers under Articles 154–162 and legislative powers under Articles 174, 200, 213. Conceived as a neutral link between the Union and the State, the Governor’s office has often been criticized as a tool of the Centre. The recent Supreme Court judgment (2025) in the Tamil Nadu case has re-examined the Governor’s powers and position, especially regarding assent to bills and legislative functioning.

Body

A. Powers of the Governor

1. Executive Powers – Appoints Chief Minister (Art. 164), Advocate General, State Election Commissioner, etc. Exercises functions on aid and advice of Council of Ministers (Art. 163).
2. Legislative Powers –
   • Summons, prorogues, dissolves House (Art. 174).
   • Addresses legislature, nominates members in some states.
   • Assent to Bills (Art. 200): may give assent, withhold, return (once), or reserve for President (Art. 201).
   • Ordinance-making power (Art. 213).
3. Judicial Powers – Grants pardons, reprieves (Art. 161).
4. Discretionary Powers – Hung assembly, recommending President’s Rule (Art. 356), reserving certain bills, etc.

B. Position of the Governor

• Constitutionally, a nominal head, expected to act on advice of elected government.
• Practically, Governors often act as agents of the Centre, creating friction with state governments.
• Office is criticized for overstepping into politics, delaying assent to bills, and interfering in day-to-day governance.

C. Issues Leading to Tamil Nadu Petition (2025)

• The Tamil Nadu government alleged the Governor withheld assent/delayed action on multiple bills.
• Bills re-passed by the legislature were again reserved for President, effectively blocking state legislation.

D. Supreme Court’s Judgment (2025)

• No Absolute Veto / Pocket Veto: Governor cannot indefinitely withhold assent.
• Mandatory Procedure under Art. 200: If withholding assent, must return the bill with a message for reconsideration.
• Re-passed Bills: Once legislature re-passes, Governor must assent; cannot reserve it again for the President.
• Timeliness: Though no fixed timeline, Governor must act “as soon as possible”. Delay is open to judicial review.
• Judicial Intervention: Court, using 142, deemed certain bills as having received assent to prevent governance paralysis.

E. Critical Examination

• Strengths: Judgment reinforces the primacy of elected legislature, curbs misuse of discretionary powers, and prevents Centre–State tensions from blocking state laws.
• Concerns:
  • Ambiguity remains about what counts as “reasonable time”.
  • Political misuse may continue in hung assemblies, floor test recommendations, and use of Art. 356.
  • The Governor still enjoys immunity under Art. 361, making accountability difficult.
• Thus, while the judgment strengthens federal democracy, deeper reforms (transparent appointments, fixed timelines, clearer guidelines) are needed.

Conclusion

The Governor’s role, envisaged as a constitutional sentinel, has often been distorted by political practice. The Supreme Court’s Tamil Nadu judgment (2025) is a landmark in restoring balance, ensuring that Governors cannot act as political veto players against elected governments. To further strengthen cooperative federalism, reforms in the appointment process, fixed time-limits for assent, and greater parliamentary oversight are essential.

• Explain about the major irritants in Centre-State relations in India.

Answer:

Introduction

The Indian Constitution establishes a quasi-federal structure with a strong Centre, described by K.C. Wheare as “federal in form but unitary in spirit.” While this ensures unity, it also generates irritants in Centre–State relations, especially visible in legislative, administrative, financial, and political spheres.

Body

1. Legislative Irritants

• Residuary powers (Art. 248) rest with the Centre, unlike the U.S. federation.
• Parliament’s power over State List: e.g., Farm Laws 2020 (later repealed) were challenged as encroachment into State subjects like agriculture.
• Article 356 misuse: e.g., Kerala 1959, Arunachal Pradesh 2016, Uttarakhand 2016; SC in R. Bommai (1994) curbed misuse.
• Governor’s assent powers (Art. 200): In Tamil Nadu (2025) and Kerala (2023), Governors delayed or withheld assent to state bills, leading to SC intervention.

2. Administrative Irritants

• All India Services (Art. 312): States like West Bengal and Tamil Nadu have demanded more say in cadre allocation.
• Governor’s discretionary powers: In Maharashtra (2019), Governor’s early morning swearing-in of a CM was questioned; in Karnataka (2018), Governor’s invitation to largest party created controversy.
• Central agencies: States like West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra withdrew “general consent” to CBI citing political misuse.

3. Financial Irritants

• Vertical fiscal imbalance: Centre collects ~60% of revenue but States bear ~85% of expenditure responsibilities (Finance Commission reports).
• Finance Commission criteria: Southern states (Tamil Nadu, Kerala) opposed use of 2011 Census population data, arguing it penalised them for population control.
• GST regime: During COVID-19 (2020), Centre delayed GST compensation, sparking protests from Punjab, Kerala, and West Bengal.
• Centrally Sponsored Schemes: States complain of burden-sharing; e.g., Smart Cities Mission and PM Gram Sadak Yojana require matching state funds.

4. Political & Institutional Irritants

• Partisan use of Governors: In Telangana (2022), Governor delayed approval for the state budget session; in Punjab (2023), Governor refused to summon Assembly citing procedural lapses.
• Underutilisation of Inter-State Council (Art. 263): Last met in 2017, despite being a constitutional forum for resolving disputes.
• NITI Aayog: Southern states argue it lacks teeth compared to Planning Commission, since it cannot allocate funds.
• Special Category Status demands: Andhra Pradesh (post-bifurcation, 2014) continues to demand special status, causing Centre–State friction.

Conclusion

The irritants in Centre–State relations largely flow from the asymmetry built into the Constitution and its political misuse. Judicial interventions like S.R. Bommai (1994) and Supreme Court’s Tamil Nadu judgment (2025) reaffirm federal principles, but institutional reforms are needed. Strengthening the Inter-State Council, enforcing time-bound Governor’s actions, fiscal federalism, and genuine cooperative mechanisms will help reduce tensions and deepen India’s federal spirit.

• Comment upon “Children’s rights and their plight” in India.

Answer

Introduction

Children constitute nearly 40% of India’s population and represent the foundation of the country’s demographic dividend. Their rights are enshrined in the Constitution, various legislations, and international conventions like the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC, 1989). Yet, despite legal protections, Indian children continue to face multiple deprivations, reflecting a gap between rights and reality.

Children’s Rights in India

• Constitutional Provisions:
• Article 14, 15, 21A (Right to Education), 24 (prohibition of child labour), 39(e) & (f) (protection from abuse, opportunities for healthy development).
• Legal Frameworks:
• Right to Education Act, 2009; Juvenile Justice Act, 2015; Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006; POCSO Act, 2012.

• Policy Measures:
• Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), POSHAN Abhiyaan, Mid-Day Meal Scheme, Childline services.
• International Commitments:
• India is a signatory to the UN CRC, committing to survival, protection, development, and participation rights of children.

Children’s Plight in India

• Poverty and Malnutrition
• NFHS-5 (2019–21): 35.5% children under 5 are stunted, 19.3% wasted, 32.1% underweight.
• Child Labour
• Census 2011: 10.1 million child labourers (5–14 years). Pandemic worsened this due to loss of family income.
• Education Deficits
• Despite RTE, dropout rates remain high: UDISE+ 2021–22 shows 12.6% dropout at secondary level.
• ASER 2022: Learning crisis persists, with only 20% of Class 3 students able to read a Class 2 text.
• Child Marriage
• NFHS-5: 23.3% women aged 20–24 were married before 18.
• Child Abuse and Exploitation
• NCRB 2022: Over 1.6 lakh cases under POCSO Act. Many cases of trafficking, online exploitation, and sexual abuse remain unreported.

Street and Orphaned Children

• UNICEF estimates millions of children live without parental care, vulnerable to exploitation and trafficking.
• Analysis of Children’s Rights vs Plight in India
• Gap between Legal Provisions and Ground Reality
• India has progressive laws (RTE, POCSO, JJ Act), but implementation is patchy.
• Example: Even though RTE ensures free and compulsory education up to 14 years, ASER 2022 shows learning poverty — only 20% of Class 3 students can read a Class 2 text.

Socio-economic Barriers

• Poverty, patriarchy, caste, and regional disparities continue to block children from accessing their rights.
• Child labour and child marriage remain socially tolerated in some regions, despite being illegal.

Institutional and Administrative Challenges

• Schemes like ICDS and POSHAN Abhiyaan suffer from underfunding, lack of monitoring, and irregular delivery.
• Child protection institutions (like Child Welfare Committees, Juvenile Justice Boards) face staff shortages and delays, weakening enforcement.

Justice Delivery Issues

• Though POCSO Act is strong, conviction rates remain low (below 30%), and many cases drag on for years.
• Children are often re-traumatized in the judicial process.

Urban vs Rural Divide

• Rural children are more prone to child marriage, malnutrition, and school dropouts.
• Urban poor children (street children, child beggars) face exploitation with no comprehensive rehabilitation framework.

Conclusion

Children’s rights in India are well protected on paper, but their plight reveals deep socio-economic inequalities and governance gaps. Strengthening school education quality, nutritional programmes, child protection mechanisms, community awareness, and speedy justice systems is essential. As former President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam said, “The ignited minds of children are the most powerful resource on the earth.” Ensuring their rights is not just a legal duty but a moral imperative for India’s future.

• “Non-Governmental Organizations play a multi facet role in the society.” Elaborate the statement.

Answer:

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have emerged as vital catalysts of social change and development, working alongside governments to address various societal challenges. With approximately 3.3 million NGOs in India, as reported by the Central Statistical Institute, these organizations serve as crucial bridges between government initiatives and community needs.

Role of NGOs in Social Development

• Service Delivery: NGOs provide essential services in healthcare, education, and social welfare, particularly in areas where government presence is limited (e.g., Prathamin education, Akshaya Patra in mid-day meal programs).
• Advocacy and Rights Protection: They act as watchdogs, advocating for marginalized communities and protecting human rights (e.g., People’s Union for Civil Libertiesin civil rights protection).
• Research and Innovation: NGOs contribute to policy-making through research, data collection, and innovative solutions to social problems (e.g., Centre for Science and Environmentin environmental research).

Governance and Implementation

• Regulatory Framework: NGOs operate under multiple legal frameworks including the Societies Registration Act 1860and FCRA 2010, ensuring accountability and transparency.
• Resource Mobilization: They leverage both domestic and international funding, with FCRA-registered NGOschanneling foreign contributions for development initiatives.
• Capacity Building: NGOs strengthen local institutions and empower communities through training and skill development programs.

Challenges and Solutions

• Financial Sustainability: Many NGOs face funding constraints due to stricter FCRA regulationsand limited domestic resources.
• Coordination Gaps: Better coordination between NGOs and government bodies is needed to avoid duplication of efforts.
• Quality Assurance: Implementation of standardized monitoring and evaluation systems can enhance program effectiveness.

The multifaceted role of NGOs is exemplified by their presence across India, with Uttar Pradesh leading with 27,270 registered NGOs, followed by Maharashtra with 24,784. Working in harmony with government initiatives like Ayushman Bharat and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, NGOs continue to be instrumental in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals while fostering inclusive growth and social justice.

• What do you mean by Good Governance in India? Discuss its salient characteristics. Also discuss barriers to Good Governance in India.

Answer:

Good Governance implies an administration that is transparent, accountable, citizen-centric, and responsive. In India, the concept was highlighted by the 2nd Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) and is essential for achieving constitutional values of justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity.

Salient Characteristics of Good Governance:

1. Accountability & Transparency: Officials are answerable for actions, with mechanisms like RTI Act (2005) and e-governance portals ensuring openness.
2. Rule of Law: Governance rooted in constitutional supremacy, impartial judiciary, and equal protection of law.
3. Efficiency & Effectiveness: Optimal utilization of resources for maximum public welfare, e.g., Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT).
4. Participation: Decentralization through Panchayati Raj Institutions (73rd and 74th Amendments) enables citizen involvement.
5. Equity & Inclusiveness: Prioritizing marginalized sections through welfare schemes like MGNREGS, PMAY-G, and scholarships.
6. Consensus Orientation: Balancing diverse social and regional aspirations within democratic processes.
7. Responsiveness: Prompt service delivery ensured through legislations like Public Services Guarantee Acts in states.

Barriers to Good Governance in India:

• Corruption and Red-tapism: Bureaucratic delays and rent-seeking weaken efficiency.
• Over-centralization: Weak local capacities limit effective decentralization.
• Capacity Constraints: Shortage of skilled manpower, poor training, and weak institutions.
• Digital Divide: Limits the success of e-governance in rural/remote areas.
• Socio-economic Inequalities: Caste, gender, and regional disparities hinder inclusiveness.
• Weak Implementation: Gap between policy formulation and on-ground execution.

Conclusion:

Good Governance in India is not merely efficient administration but a means to realize democratic ideals and sustainable development. Overcoming systemic barriers through reforms, technology adoption, and citizen empowerment is vital for achieving truly participatory and inclusive governance.

• What is ‘Operation Sindoor’? Has it been able to resolve India’s problem of terrorism from Pakistan?

Answer:
Operation Sindoor was a tri-service military operation launched by the Indian Armed Forces on May 6–7, 2025, in response to the Pahalgam terrorist attack, which killed 26 people, including Indian citizens and one Nepali citizen. The operation involved precision missile strikes on nine terrorist infrastructure sites in Pakistan and Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK). Its objectives were to eliminate terrorist threats, hold perpetrators accountable, and signal India’s strong resolve against cross-border terrorism.

Achievements / Strengths:

• Rapid and Decisive Action:Demonstrated India’s capability to respond swiftly to large-scale terrorist incidents, similar to Operation Bandar targeting terror camps in PoK after the Pulwama attack.
• Tri-Service Coordination:Army, Air Force, and Navy executed a precise and integrated operation.
• Targeted Approach:Strikes focused on terrorist infrastructure rather than indiscriminate action, ensuring operational precision.
• Strategic Deterrence:Sent a clear message about India’s intolerance for cross-border terrorism.
• International Credibility:Showcased India as a responsible state capable of measured military action to safeguard its citizens.

Effectiveness of Operation Sindoor in Addressing Cross-Border Terrorism:

• Terrorism continues due tostate sponsorship, porous borders, and safe havens for militants.
• Tactical strikes like Operation Sindoor cannotfully resolve structural and geopolitical roots of terrorism.
• Previous examples, like the2016 surgical strikes after Uri attack, highlight that such operations disrupt terror networks but do not permanently eliminate them.
• Long-term mitigation requiresintelligence vigilance, diplomatic pressure, and socio-economic developmentin vulnerable regions.
• Nevertheless, the operationenhanced India’s deterrence capability, disrupted terror networks, and demonstrated India’s resolve to act decisively against perpetrators.

Conclusion:
Operation Sindoor strengthened India’s operational, strategic, and diplomatic stance against terrorism. While it has not completely eradicated terrorism originating from Pakistan, it significantly reduces vulnerabilities and enhances India’s ability to respond swiftly. A holistic strategy combining military, intelligence, diplomatic, and socio-economic measures remains essential for long-term resolution.

• Discuss the impact of non-traditional threats on India’s security.

Answer:

Introduction

• Non-traditional threats (NTAs) are security challenges that originate from non-state actors and non-military sources, such as climate change, cybercrime, and pandemics.
• They transcend national borders and require cooperative, multi-agency responses, fundamentally reshaping India’s security paradigm beyond conventional warfare.

Major Non-Traditional Threats & Their Direct Impacts

1. Climate Change & Environmental Degradation:
   • Impact:Causes extreme weather events (cyclones, floods), glacial melt affecting river flows, and sea-level rise threatening coastal populations and infrastructure.
   • Secondary Effect:Triggers resource scarcity, leading to environmental migration and potential conflicts over water and land.
2. Cyber Threats:
   • Impact:Targets critical infrastructure (power grids, financial systems), leads to data theft, and disrupts essential services.
   • Secondary Effect:Undermines economic security and can be used for espionage and spreading disinformation to destabilize society.
3. Terrorism & Transnational Organized Crime:
   • Impact:Narco-terrorism fuels insurgency; human trafficking and illicit arms trade undermine internal law and order and finance terrorist activities.
4. Energy & Economic Security:
   • Impact:Dependence on imported energy creates vulnerability to global price shocks. Economic disruptions like global recessions impact growth and development.
5. Pandemics & Health Security:
   • Impact:As seen with COVID-19, pandemics cause massive loss of life, overwhelm health infrastructure, and bring economic activity to a halt.

Broader Strategic Implications

• Strains Resources:Diverts military and financial resources from modernization to disaster relief and internal security management.
• Exacerbates Internal Conflicts:NTAs like water scarcity or climate-induced migration can intensify existing ethnic or communal fault lines.
• Challenges Governance:Effective response requires coordination between central, state, and local agencies, testing the capacity and efficiency of the Indian state.

Conclusion

• Non-traditional threats represent a profound shift in the nature of security challenges. Their diffuse and interconnected nature makes them complex to manage.
• They impact not just the state’s sovereignty but the very core of human security—economic well-being, health, and a safe environment.
• Consequently, India’s security strategy must continue to evolve, prioritizing holistic policy frameworks, technological adaptation, and stronger international cooperation to effectively counter these 21st-century threats.

• What is non-aligned policy of India? Is it relevant today?

Answer:

• TheNon-Aligned Policy or Non-Alignment Movement (NAM) was adopted by India post-independence under Jawaharlal Nehru to maintain strategic autonomy by not aligning with either Cold War bloc, while promoting peace, cooperation, anti-colonial solidarity, and South-South collaboration.
• India was afounding member of NAM in 1961 at Belgrade, alongside leaders like Tito, Nasser, Nkrumah, and Sukarno.
• NAM provided a platform for newly independent and developing countries to assert sovereignty, resist external domination, and advance economic and social development.

Key Features of India’s Non-Aligned Policy

1. Strategic Autonomy:India could make independent foreign policy decisions without external pressure.
2. Peaceful Coexistence:Advocated principles like sovereignty, non-interference, and peaceful resolution of conflicts.
3. Support for Decolonisation:Backed newly independent countries and movements against imperialism.
4. Multilateralism:Promoted dialogue and cooperation through forums like NAM and the UN.
5. Economic Development:Focused on cooperation among developing countries for trade, technology, and industrial growth.
6. Leadership Role in NAM:India hosted the 7th NAM Summit in New Delhi (1983) and actively shaped NAM’s agenda on disarmament, economic equity, and global justice.

Relevance Today

1. Global Multipolarity:With the rise of China, a resurgent Russia, and shifting US policies, India’s non-aligned approach allows flexibility in partnerships.
2. Strategic Autonomy:India can maintain good relations with the US, Russia, and other major powers without being bound to a single alliance.
3. South-South Cooperation:NAM principles still support collaboration with developing countries in trade, technology, and climate issues.
4. Limitations:The Cold War context no longer exists, and security concerns like border disputes, terrorism, and defence alliances require selective alignments (e.g., Quad, AUKUS discussions).

Conclusion
The non-aligned policy remains relevant as a principle of strategic autonomy and independent foreign policy. Through NAM, India strengthened its diplomatic influence among developing nations. However, in practice, India has moved towards “multi-alignment”, balancing partnerships with major powers while retaining the freedom to act in its national interest.

• “Sub-Regional binaries have institutionalised the basis of political parties in Himachal Pradesh.” Comment.

Answer :

The politics of Himachal Pradesh has been shaped not only by social hierarchies and economic divisions but also by sub-regional binaries, rooted in geography, history, economy, and culture. These binaries have institutionalized the strategies of political parties, influencing leadership choices, electoral outcomes, and resource distribution.

1. Historical Basis of Sub-Regional Binaries

• Shimla Hills vs. Punjab Hills: Before independence, Shimla Hills were ruled by princely states, while Punjab Hills were under direct British control. This gave rise to distinct political traditions—Praja Mandal movements in the former, and anti-colonial struggles in the latter.
• After the 1966 reorganisation, these differences persisted in political alignments, giving rise to theOld Himachal (pre-1966 areas)  New Himachal (Punjab-merged areas) divide.

2. Political Institutionalisation of Binaries

• Leadership Patterns:Congress dominance in Old Himachal (e.g., S. Parmar, Ram Lal, Virbhadra Singh) vs. BJP strength in New Himachal (e.g., Shanta Kumar, Prem Kumar Dhumal).
• Ticket Distribution:Both Congress and BJP consciously balance candidate selection across Old and New Himachal to avoid alienation.
• Cap Politics:The “green cap” (Congress, Upper Himachal) vs. “maroon cap” (BJP, Lower Himachal) became symbolic of regional divides.

3. Economic and Social Dimensions

• Agriculture vs. Horticulture Economy:Lower Himachal (Kangra, Una, Hamirpur) relies on subsistence agriculture, while Upper Himachal (Shimla, Kullu, Kinnaur) thrives on horticulture, especially apples. This divide often translates into political demands and party manifestos.
• Land Reforms:Disparities in land ceiling policies (orchards exempt, agriculture not) deepened resentment in Lower Himachal, fueling alignment with BJP.
• Cultural Divide:Upper Himachal (influenced by Tibetan culture, Buddhism, Pahari dialects) differs from Lower Himachal (Hindu-majority, Punjabi influence). Parties have mobilised these cultural markers during elections.

4. Electoral Outcomes

• Traditionally,Congress dominated Old Himachal, while BJP consolidated New Himachal.
• Example: In 2003–2012, Congress averaged 17/34 seats in Old Himachal; BJP dominated New Himachal with up to 25 seats (2017).
• Leadership balance: Virbhadra Singh (Shimla, Old Himachal) vs. Prem Kumar Dhumal (Hamirpur, New Himachal) shows how sub-regional binaries directly shaped theCM face selection.

5. Counter-trends and Evolution

• Dilution of binaries:Increasing urbanisation, literacy, and connectivity are gradually weakening rigid divides.
• National Issues:Rising unemployment, inflation, and Modi factor in recent elections show that regional binaries coexist with national narratives.
• Cross-regional appeal:Leaders like Jairam Thakur (from Mandi, Old Himachal) have tried to project themselves as pan-Himachal figures.

Conclusion

Sub-regional binaries have historically institutionalised party politics in Himachal Pradesh, influencing leadership, electoral mobilisation, and policy priorities. While these divisions still matter, their dominance is gradually declining as caste, class, and national issues gain salience. Yet, the legacy of Old vs. New Himachal, Upper vs. Lower regions continues to shape the political imagination of the state, making them a crucial lens to understand its politics.

• “Programmes and policies of the Himachal Pradesh Government for the welfare of differently-abled persons are far from satisfactory.” Do you agree with this view?

Answer:

The welfare of differently-abled persons (Divyangjans) is an important indicator of a welfare state. Himachal Pradesh has initiated several schemes—scholarships, marriage grants, rehabilitation centres, UDID cards, etc.—to integrate specially-abled persons into the mainstream. However, the effectiveness of these programmes raises concerns.

Government Initiatives

1. Scholarship Support:Monthly scholarships (₹625–₹3,750 for day scholars; ₹1,875–₹5,000 for boarders) benefit students with disabilities. Yet, by December 2024, only 456 students were covered against the large eligible population.
2. Marriage Grant:₹25,000–₹50,000 is provided to encourage inter-abled marriages. Only 30 beneficiaries availed it up to December 2024, reflecting limited outreach.
3. Institutions of Children with Special Needs:Centres at Dhalli, Dharamshala, and Sundernagar provide education and vocational training. Still, geographical coverage is inadequate for remote districts.
4. District Rehabilitation Centres:Two centres (Hamirpur, Dharamshala) exist, but lack of expansion to other districts reduces inclusivity.
5. Rehabilitation of Mentally Ill:Only two halfway homes have been established, which is insufficient given the scale of mental health issues.
6. Unique Disability ID (UDID):Over 95,000 cards issued, enabling free HRTC travel. Yet, awareness gaps delay universal coverage.
7. Festival Grant:Financial support is extended to institutions and homes, but its impact on real empowerment is minimal.

Critical Evaluation

• Low Fund Utilisation:In scholarships, only ₹75.84 lakh of the ₹170 lakh budget was spent; in marriage grants, just ₹19.89 lakh of ₹94 lakh was utilised—reflecting bureaucratic delays and limited beneficiary identification.
• Urban Bias:Most institutions are concentrated in select urban centres, excluding rural and hilly areas.
• Awareness Gaps:Many eligible families remain unaware of benefits like scholarships and UDID cards.
• Limited Scope:Focus is more on charity-oriented grants rather than structural empowerment (skill training, digital access, inclusive infrastructure).

Conclusion
While Himachal Pradesh has launched commendable welfare schemes for the differently-abled, poor fund utilisation, limited outreach, and inadequate infrastructure dilute their impact. Thus, the criticism that these programmes are “far from satisfactory” holds merit. Strengthening awareness campaigns, decentralising services to every district, and shifting from a welfare-based to an empowerment-based model are essential for inclusive growth.